{"id":195,"date":"2019-04-01T10:03:26","date_gmt":"2019-04-01T10:03:26","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp16.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=195"},"modified":"2019-04-01T10:15:48","modified_gmt":"2019-04-01T10:15:48","slug":"anthropology-and-defence-research","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/chapter\/anthropology-and-defence-research\/","title":{"rendered":"Anthropology and Defence Research"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/LwuV4e0XX00\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Contents:<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction:\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Applied Anthropology\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Military \/ Defence Studies\r\n\r\n4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The scope of Military \/ Defence Studies\r\n\r\n5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Anthropology and Militarism\r\n\r\n6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research\r\n\r\n7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army\r\n\r\n8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces\r\n\r\n9.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government.\r\n\r\n10.\u00a0 Summary\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Learning objectives:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>To provide an introduction to the field of Applied Anthropology and Defence research.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To include the Basic Concept of Military \/ Defence Studies, Anthropology and Militarism and Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To enable the students at postgraduate level to understand the Role of Anthropology in Army, Air Forces, in US Army, in Hungarian Armed Forces and working at various levels of government.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction:<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. According to William Haviland, \u201csome anthropologists consider archaeology and linguistics as part of the broader study of human cultures\u201d (Haviland, 2011), but these two subfields are also closely tied to physical anthropology. For example, even though linguistic anthropology has a deep focus on the cultural features of language, it also has a strong link to the evolution of language and the biological standing of speech studied within physical anthropology.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d (Haviland, 2011), although each take a specific approach in the study of humankind. Here, they all \u201cgenerate knowledge that has numerous practical applications\u201d (Haviland, 2011), Thus, it can be said that many practitioners within the fields of anthropology practice applied anthropology. This entails the use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve practical problems, as it involves the active collaboration with communities of research by \u201csetting goals, solving problems, and conducting research\u201d (Haviland, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">With this in mind, the discussion to follow will critically analyses the role of applied anthropology specifically in the subfield of anthropology and defence research in regards to what exactly are applied anthropology and defence research anthropology.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Applied Anthropology<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations. Their work is often defined by a specific problem and not by the discipline itself. In addition, new terms for the role and the work have emerged. All this makes defining the content of the applied anthropological field quite difficult. Yet, simply, applied anthropology is anthropology put to use.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Scupin and DeCorse have argued that \u201cone of the most important developments in the field of anthropology has been the growth of applied anthropology\u201d (Scupin and DeCorse, 2008), which is the use of anthropological knowledge and data to offer practical solutions to modern day problems and concerns. Applied anthropology was assumed to have formed by the \u201cdisintegrating effects of asymmetrical cultural contact\u201d (Haviland, 2011), because governments began to look at how anthropological research might help traditional groups in colonized territories struggling with the imposed economic, social, and political changes. This then expressed the need for a concept of applied anthropology to address the negative effects of policies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems. Further, various kinds of anthropological problem-solving activities are types of applied anthropology. One can think of anthropology as having two aspects, one of which is concerned with the solution of theoretical problems and another which is concerned with the solution of practical problems. Here, practical work often serves as the basis of important theoretical developments and applied research.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">With the growth of applied anthropology in becoming more and more remarkable, some of its supporters, such as Chambers, \u201chave advocated that it be formally recognized as a fifth field in the discipline\u201d (Barret, 2011). With the declining number of academic positions available to anthropology graduates, a large number of students are finding work outside universities in applied work. Here, the scholars are inclined to enter the applied field since \u201ctheir vision of anthropology is more than understanding the social world; they want to improve it, to be agents of change\u201d (Barret, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Chambers saw the application of anthropology by the mere fact that anthropologists had started to apply their knowledge and expertise in a wide variety of employment situations, as anthropologists were more likely to find work in the urban settings than find themselves situated among the more isolated communities. In doing so, the specialization in applied anthropology represented a \u201cdecision to enter a setting where interests that are strictly disciplinary play alongside concerns of a more diffuse and public nature\u201d (Chambers, 1985).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">making\u201d (Chambers, 1985). Consequently, applied anthropology is then influenced by the ideological flows of the society in which it is widened and is also the result of the value commitments and interests of the practitioner.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In continuation, applied anthropologists need to know the knowledge, the methods of applications, and the work context in their specific domain of applied research. This all includes the practices associated with producing and communicating useful information in a policy or action setting, the various skills associated with being a change agent, and the variety of policies issued from government sources, firms and agencies that work in a research content area.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">For that reason, applied anthropology is the concept commonly used by anthropologists to \u201cdescribe their professional activities in programmes that have as primary goals changes in human behaviour believed to ameliorate contemporary social, economic, and technological problems rather than the development of social and cultural theory\u201d (Van, 1993).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military \/ Defence Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges \/ universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defence, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The scope of Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world. This provides the broad field within which Nations of States and non-state factors interact. An attempt is made to provide for both of theoretical understanding of how and why Nations behave as they do and also a historical survey of the Major Trends in World Affairs. It also includes an understanding of Indian Military History, The Defence Organization of India, India's National Security, the Economics of Defence.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology and Militarism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations. Whether it was anthropology\u2019s development in the shadow of colonialism, settler colonialism, the expansion of empires, a range of military conquests, or the soft influx of military-linked funding for area studies or language acquisition, anthropology developed in situations involving military forces in ways that have not always been considered by the discipline. As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, and these militaries have recurrently attempted to draw on anthropological knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses (David, 2013).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In an episode made famous by Franz Boas\u2019 post\u2013World War I condemnation of archaeologist-spies, anthropologists used archaeological fieldwork as a pretense for spying for the Office of Naval Intelligence. The Second World War elevated the status of anthropology in military and intelligence circles, and the war raised awareness that anthropology could be applied to the war effort. During the 1960s, revelations of Project Camelot and America\u2019s wars in Southeast Asia pushed many younger anthropologists to oppose military and intelligence agencies\u2019 uses of anthropological information for warfare and counterinsurgency operations. In the United States, the controversy generated by anthropological contributions to operations during the late Vietnam War led the American Anthropological Association in 1971 to adopt its first Code of Ethics, the Principles of Professional Responsibility.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Soon, analyses linking the historical development of the discipline to colonialism extended these critiques from the present wars to the roots of the discipline itself. Anthropological engagements with the military raise ethical and political questions about the roles and responsibilities of anthropologists. The ethical issues involve questions of whether the use of anthropological data or methodologies violates basic anthropological ethical principles of obtaining voluntary informed consent, causing harm, or not issuing secret reports that studied populations cannot access (David, 2013).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In its broadest sense, \u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d covers a variety of distinct activities, including, perhaps most dramatically, \u201cembedding\u201d anthropologists with military troops in combat zones (in Afghanistan, Iraq, East Timor, and other locations), where they assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since the days of colonialism, anthropology has served various interests of people. The earliest use was found in the political administration in England. The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies. But as the employer solely decided the objectives, the anthropologists hardly had any scope to understand the situation with empathy. The needs and consequences of the target-group community did not get any importance. However, the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Some anthropological training centers were established for future colonial rulers where ethnology and comparative linguistics occupied a prominent place. Anthropological surveys on colonial people were instituted from 1929, under the enthusiasm of B. Malinowski. Malinowski was able to use his concept of culture in this respect. To Malinowski culture was entirely humanistic which functioned to secure human survival. He chalked out a design for its application in human welfare.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933. The most significant use was noticed with agriculture. It helped in understanding the way of life of American farmers. However, the knowledge of anthropology as used in the office of Indian Affairs was almost similar to the colonial administration in England. None of them were conscious about the ethics. France, Belgium and Netherlands also started employing anthropologists to facilitate the administration of their colonies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems. The situation got complicated with the Japanese prisoners who did not behave in the usual way. All of the Japanese soldiers who were captured in the battle showed a practice of self-killing before they were taken to the prison. Studies by the anthropologists on Japanese culture and character made the American military leaders aware that the Japanese soldiers preferred an honourable death in own hand because they considered capture as a matter of great disgrace. Anthropologists also informed that the Japanese regarded their emperor almost like god, his word was sufficient to cause all Japanese soldiers to lay down their arms. After working with the anthropologists, Americans not only learnt about the Japanese thought, they also acted as per the advice of the anthropologists to win the situations (Jitendu, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since anthropologists solved many political and military matters, after the end of the world war, a considerable number of applied anthropologists were called upon to upgrade different other projects associated with health, economy, education etc. They also contributed in the fields of religion, art, system of value and personality structure.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">They were no longer restricted to their colonialist and political image. A list furnished by Clyde Kluckhohn showed that the anthropologists of America worked in the various departments of state, in the office of strategic services, in the Board of economic Welfare, in the Military and Naval services, in the office of war information, in Peace Corps, in Foreign Economic Administration, in Federal Security Administration, in the medical branch of Army-Air Forces, in Chemical Welfare Division etc. The expertise of anthropologists was recognized in a variety of situations. Their roles were basically like advisers. Sometimes they advised the government of an emergent nation about building of roads, bridges, dams etc. and sometimes helped a public health specialist in epidemiology by advising regarding the control of Malaria, Leprosy, Tuberculosis, etc. He might act as an economist, an educator or an agronomist.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest. The fields include administration, medicine and public health, education, industry, economic development, community development and also the areas of race and ethnic relations with social policy issues. The opinions of anthropologists have even found valuable in the needs of the athletics, defence services, forensic science and criminology, eugenics, national integration and international relations. Their views are also respected in museums and art gallery. (Jitendu, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropometry and Seating accommodation and cockpit<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In studies central to the human physique in relation to its environment, many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women. They emphasized the need to design the seats and make them more comfortable for the larger public, since they knew about and understood that a correlation between health and a good posture existed.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hooton while conducting research on seating accommodation in train uncovered that certain sitting arrangements kept the body of an individual in a bad posture, which could result in various disabilities in skeletal, muscular and other organic parts of the body\u201d (Jaiswal, 2011). While, on the other hand, alternative sitting arrangements, in fact corrected posture, enhanced alertness and endurance, and improved circulation and respiration.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">After analyzing the variations in anthropometrics in regards to body measurements, the seats on defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit were redesigned, and were then continued to be used in other areas that designed office chairs, seats in educational institutes, and even commercial vehicles.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Albert Damon and Francis Randall, two physical anthropologists, were employed by the American Army Airforces to work on problems experienced by aviators and the area of space they had to sit in\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">the aeroplanes. Here, they were asked to conduct research and \u201cto provide information on human dimensions, human muscle strength, and human comfort\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">After extensive applied research the anthropologist teams discovered that in the area of human strength measurement they had to focus on the strength of the pilots as well as the \u201cmost efficient angle at which the muscle force could be applied in the cockpit in operating foot pedals\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958). The team also realized that they had to adjust the cockpits to suit the cultural variations of bone density between the different pilots and this involved projects on \u201cthe prone position in bed for pilots, the supine seat for pilots, and the control stick grip development for fighter airplanes\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958), after various measurements in anthroposcopy and anthropometry were considered.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Furthermore, technological advancements have also driven physical anthropological work in the army. Applied physical anthropologists work on the soldier\u2019s gear in regards to the study of anthropometry, which included equipment such as laser aiming devices, night vision goggles, heads-up displays for communication and navigation, as well as their clothing. This required the applied research of physical anthropologists since they studied how the equipment and clothing \u201cimposed restrictions on the ability of a soldier to move\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Here, the biomechanical analysis done by applied physical anthropologists helped the US army to understand the restrictions and aided alterations to designs \u201cso that their impact on movement is minimized\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996).<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Even though applied physical anthropology may not be as high profile or glamorous as the other fields of applied research, it is said to be both challenging and rewarding, since applied physical anthropologist have the ability to \u201ctake a complex mix of information from many fields, such as engineering, clothing design, and product manufacturing, and integrate anthropometry into the design process\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Thus, the greatest award is seeing the application of the research in a direct manner which may ensure the safety of many individuals.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks \u2013 like:\r\n\r\n1.\u00a0 At the operational level, in the planning phase;\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0 Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas;\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0 During the training for missions and in higher education.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events. In this case, the local cultural differences, local language recognition, building and exploring a network of contacts, tracing political units, these all can provide such information to the operational planning level that can make the evacuation and the start of workflow more efficient, economical and faster. Inclusion of first contact with the local population can only be executed by a qualified specialist, but a time of keeping in touch is also helpful when an already known specialist negotiates in a foreign country with foreign leaders.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">On a tactical level, the military anthropologist has to appear on the spot, operate locally with the military units and continuously collect information about the state between the military and the civilian sector, and communicate with local leaders and the local population. Without this knowledge, the relocation and work of military units is more dangerous, more expensive and takes more time. Thanks to a social scientist\u2019s research, more detailed and multidirectional information can be collected about the culture and the troops are more sensitive to changes.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The disclosed information will not only be used for command and reconnaissance elements, but it can be integrated into the next shift\u2019s training, not to mention its role in military higher education, with which we will be able to train multi\u2013dimensional thinking military leaders, who will be able to meet the challenges of the future (Sztankai, 2014).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government. They may be directly involved in planning and policy-making activities, obtaining jobs in government funding bodies, or senior administrative roles. Equally, they may be part of advisory or lobbying groups that indirectly inform\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">government practice, in grassroots advocacy, or in agencies responsible for carrying out government activities in public services such as health, welfare, housing or education.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Almost every aspect of government decision-making benefits from a deep understanding of the social and cultural dynamics of the actors involved. Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials. In these situations, anthropologists need to become skilled in communicating anthropological knowledge and insight to non-specialists, and demonstrating how anthropology can transcend disciplinary boundaries.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Most jobs within the government sector demanding a certain level of responsibility and management will require entrants to have specialist knowledge and skills gained from a combination of a postgraduate degree and previous work experience, or advanced training.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Many government-funded projects and organizations within the country are devoted to helping young people gain experience in the sector. Students can become youth ambassadors, take part in political campaigns and rallies, or volunteer in human resource services. Whether you are a student at secondary school or university, or no longer a student, there are many ways you can become involved (Royal Anthropological Institute. 2017).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">anthropologists solved many political and military matters<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>you can view video on Anthropology and Defence Research<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/LwuV4e0XX00\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>GLOSSARY<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Applied Anthropology<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Applied anthropology, also known as \u201cpracticing anthropology,\u201d is defined as the practical application of anthropological method and theory to the needs of society. It is, quite simply, anthropology put to good use. This fifth field of anthropology has increased dramatically in the past three decades.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defense Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military \/ Defense Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges \/ universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defense, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Military Anthropology<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In its broadest sense, \u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d covers a variety of distinct activities, including, perhaps most dramatically, \u201cembedding\u201d anthropologists with military troops in combat zones (in Afghanistan, Iraq, East Timor, and other locations), where they assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Albert Damon and Francis Randall, two physical anthropologists, were employed by the American Army Airforces to work on problems experienced by aviators and the area of space they had to sit in the aeroplanes. Here, they were asked to conduct research and \u201cto provide information on human dimensions, human muscle strength, and human comfort\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks \u2013 like 1. At the operational level, in the planning phase; 2. Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas; 3. During the training for missions and in higher education<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Interesting facts<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">anthropologists solved many political and military matters<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References and Suggested Reading<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">American Anthropological Association. \"What is Anthropology?\" (http:\/\/www.aaanet.org \/about\/whatisanthropology.cfm).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Barret, S., 2011. Anthropology: A Student's Guide to Theory and Method. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chambers, E., 1985. Applied Anthropology: A Practical Guide. Englewoods Cliffs: Prentice Hall.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Corner, B. &amp; Gordon, C., 1996. Applied Physical Anthropology in the US Army, Natick: US Army Natick Research, Development, and Engineering Centre.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">David Price. 2013. Anthropology and Militarism. Oxford Bibliographies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dirkmaat, D. C., Cabo, L. L., Ousley, S. D. &amp; Symes, S. A., 2008. New Perspectives in Forensic Anthropology, s.l.: Mercyhurst College.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Hansen, R. and Cornog, D., 1958. Annotated bibliography of applied physical anthropology in human engineering, pennsylvania: aero medical laboratory.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Haviland, W., 2011. Anthropology: The Human Challenge. 13th ed. Canada: Wadsworth.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal, A., 2011. Applied Physical Anthropology. [Online] Available at: http:\/\/anthropologicalstudy. coml\/2011\/03applied-physical-anthropology.html?m=1<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal A. 2013, Human Genetics and Applied Biophysical anthropology, Heritage publisher, 258-270.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal A. 2012, Anthropo-medical profile of Textile workers, Alfa publication, 297-314<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jitendu Sarkar, Anthropology: Uses of Anthropology 2016 YourArticleLibrary.com,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jurmain, R., Kilgore, L. &amp; Trevanthan, W., 2011. Essentails of Physical Anthopology. 8th ed. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kedia, Satish, and Willigen J. Van (2005). Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 16, 150.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">McKern, T., 1966. Readings in Physical Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs: Prenctice-Hall.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Montagu, A., 1960. An Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 3rd ed. Springfield: Charls C Thomas Publisher.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Podolefskey,\u00a0 A.\u00a0 &amp;\u00a0 Brown,\u00a0 P.,\u00a0 1997.\u00a0 Applying\u00a0 Anthropology:\u00a0 An\u00a0 Introductory\u00a0 Reader. Mountain View: Mayfair Publications.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Royal Anthropological Institute. 2017. Career Opportunities in Politics, Government, and Activism Contrada, J. Illustration &amp; Artwork, ESRC.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Said, Edward W. (1994). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sztankai Kriszti\u00e1n, 2014. Place and role of cultural anthropology in the Military. AARMS Vol. 13, No. 1 (2014) 113\u2013116<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Shell-Duncan, Bettina, and Ylva Hernlund (2000). Female \"circumcision\" in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. p. 25.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Scupin, R. &amp; DeCorse, C., 2008. Anthropology: A Global Perspective. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Van Willigen, J., 1993. Applied Anthropology: An Introduction. Washington: Bergin and Garvey Publishers.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/LwuV4e0XX00\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Contents:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction:<\/p>\n<p>2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Applied Anthropology<\/p>\n<p>3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Military \/ Defence Studies<\/p>\n<p>4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The scope of Military \/ Defence Studies<\/p>\n<p>5.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Anthropology and Militarism<\/p>\n<p>6.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research<\/p>\n<p>7.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army<\/p>\n<p>8.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces<\/p>\n<p>9.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government.<\/p>\n<p>10.\u00a0 Summary<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Learning objectives:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>To provide an introduction to the field of Applied Anthropology and Defence research.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To include the Basic Concept of Military \/ Defence Studies, Anthropology and Militarism and Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To enable the students at postgraduate level to understand the Role of Anthropology in Army, Air Forces, in US Army, in Hungarian Armed Forces and working at various levels of government.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. According to William Haviland, \u201csome anthropologists consider archaeology and linguistics as part of the broader study of human cultures\u201d (Haviland, 2011), but these two subfields are also closely tied to physical anthropology. For example, even though linguistic anthropology has a deep focus on the cultural features of language, it also has a strong link to the evolution of language and the biological standing of speech studied within physical anthropology.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d (Haviland, 2011), although each take a specific approach in the study of humankind. Here, they all \u201cgenerate knowledge that has numerous practical applications\u201d (Haviland, 2011), Thus, it can be said that many practitioners within the fields of anthropology practice applied anthropology. This entails the use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve practical problems, as it involves the active collaboration with communities of research by \u201csetting goals, solving problems, and conducting research\u201d (Haviland, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">With this in mind, the discussion to follow will critically analyses the role of applied anthropology specifically in the subfield of anthropology and defence research in regards to what exactly are applied anthropology and defence research anthropology.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Applied Anthropology<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations. Their work is often defined by a specific problem and not by the discipline itself. In addition, new terms for the role and the work have emerged. All this makes defining the content of the applied anthropological field quite difficult. Yet, simply, applied anthropology is anthropology put to use.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Scupin and DeCorse have argued that \u201cone of the most important developments in the field of anthropology has been the growth of applied anthropology\u201d (Scupin and DeCorse, 2008), which is the use of anthropological knowledge and data to offer practical solutions to modern day problems and concerns. Applied anthropology was assumed to have formed by the \u201cdisintegrating effects of asymmetrical cultural contact\u201d (Haviland, 2011), because governments began to look at how anthropological research might help traditional groups in colonized territories struggling with the imposed economic, social, and political changes. This then expressed the need for a concept of applied anthropology to address the negative effects of policies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems. Further, various kinds of anthropological problem-solving activities are types of applied anthropology. One can think of anthropology as having two aspects, one of which is concerned with the solution of theoretical problems and another which is concerned with the solution of practical problems. Here, practical work often serves as the basis of important theoretical developments and applied research.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">With the growth of applied anthropology in becoming more and more remarkable, some of its supporters, such as Chambers, \u201chave advocated that it be formally recognized as a fifth field in the discipline\u201d (Barret, 2011). With the declining number of academic positions available to anthropology graduates, a large number of students are finding work outside universities in applied work. Here, the scholars are inclined to enter the applied field since \u201ctheir vision of anthropology is more than understanding the social world; they want to improve it, to be agents of change\u201d (Barret, 2011).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Chambers saw the application of anthropology by the mere fact that anthropologists had started to apply their knowledge and expertise in a wide variety of employment situations, as anthropologists were more likely to find work in the urban settings than find themselves situated among the more isolated communities. In doing so, the specialization in applied anthropology represented a \u201cdecision to enter a setting where interests that are strictly disciplinary play alongside concerns of a more diffuse and public nature\u201d (Chambers, 1985).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">making\u201d (Chambers, 1985). Consequently, applied anthropology is then influenced by the ideological flows of the society in which it is widened and is also the result of the value commitments and interests of the practitioner.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In continuation, applied anthropologists need to know the knowledge, the methods of applications, and the work context in their specific domain of applied research. This all includes the practices associated with producing and communicating useful information in a policy or action setting, the various skills associated with being a change agent, and the variety of policies issued from government sources, firms and agencies that work in a research content area.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">For that reason, applied anthropology is the concept commonly used by anthropologists to \u201cdescribe their professional activities in programmes that have as primary goals changes in human behaviour believed to ameliorate contemporary social, economic, and technological problems rather than the development of social and cultural theory\u201d (Van, 1993).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military \/ Defence Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges \/ universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defence, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The scope of Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world. This provides the broad field within which Nations of States and non-state factors interact. An attempt is made to provide for both of theoretical understanding of how and why Nations behave as they do and also a historical survey of the Major Trends in World Affairs. It also includes an understanding of Indian Military History, The Defence Organization of India, India&#8217;s National Security, the Economics of Defence.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology and Militarism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations. Whether it was anthropology\u2019s development in the shadow of colonialism, settler colonialism, the expansion of empires, a range of military conquests, or the soft influx of military-linked funding for area studies or language acquisition, anthropology developed in situations involving military forces in ways that have not always been considered by the discipline. As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, and these militaries have recurrently attempted to draw on anthropological knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses (David, 2013).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In an episode made famous by Franz Boas\u2019 post\u2013World War I condemnation of archaeologist-spies, anthropologists used archaeological fieldwork as a pretense for spying for the Office of Naval Intelligence. The Second World War elevated the status of anthropology in military and intelligence circles, and the war raised awareness that anthropology could be applied to the war effort. During the 1960s, revelations of Project Camelot and America\u2019s wars in Southeast Asia pushed many younger anthropologists to oppose military and intelligence agencies\u2019 uses of anthropological information for warfare and counterinsurgency operations. In the United States, the controversy generated by anthropological contributions to operations during the late Vietnam War led the American Anthropological Association in 1971 to adopt its first Code of Ethics, the Principles of Professional Responsibility.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Soon, analyses linking the historical development of the discipline to colonialism extended these critiques from the present wars to the roots of the discipline itself. Anthropological engagements with the military raise ethical and political questions about the roles and responsibilities of anthropologists. The ethical issues involve questions of whether the use of anthropological data or methodologies violates basic anthropological ethical principles of obtaining voluntary informed consent, causing harm, or not issuing secret reports that studied populations cannot access (David, 2013).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In its broadest sense, \u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d covers a variety of distinct activities, including, perhaps most dramatically, \u201cembedding\u201d anthropologists with military troops in combat zones (in Afghanistan, Iraq, East Timor, and other locations), where they assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since the days of colonialism, anthropology has served various interests of people. The earliest use was found in the political administration in England. The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies. But as the employer solely decided the objectives, the anthropologists hardly had any scope to understand the situation with empathy. The needs and consequences of the target-group community did not get any importance. However, the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Some anthropological training centers were established for future colonial rulers where ethnology and comparative linguistics occupied a prominent place. Anthropological surveys on colonial people were instituted from 1929, under the enthusiasm of B. Malinowski. Malinowski was able to use his concept of culture in this respect. To Malinowski culture was entirely humanistic which functioned to secure human survival. He chalked out a design for its application in human welfare.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933. The most significant use was noticed with agriculture. It helped in understanding the way of life of American farmers. However, the knowledge of anthropology as used in the office of Indian Affairs was almost similar to the colonial administration in England. None of them were conscious about the ethics. France, Belgium and Netherlands also started employing anthropologists to facilitate the administration of their colonies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems. The situation got complicated with the Japanese prisoners who did not behave in the usual way. All of the Japanese soldiers who were captured in the battle showed a practice of self-killing before they were taken to the prison. Studies by the anthropologists on Japanese culture and character made the American military leaders aware that the Japanese soldiers preferred an honourable death in own hand because they considered capture as a matter of great disgrace. Anthropologists also informed that the Japanese regarded their emperor almost like god, his word was sufficient to cause all Japanese soldiers to lay down their arms. After working with the anthropologists, Americans not only learnt about the Japanese thought, they also acted as per the advice of the anthropologists to win the situations (Jitendu, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Since anthropologists solved many political and military matters, after the end of the world war, a considerable number of applied anthropologists were called upon to upgrade different other projects associated with health, economy, education etc. They also contributed in the fields of religion, art, system of value and personality structure.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">They were no longer restricted to their colonialist and political image. A list furnished by Clyde Kluckhohn showed that the anthropologists of America worked in the various departments of state, in the office of strategic services, in the Board of economic Welfare, in the Military and Naval services, in the office of war information, in Peace Corps, in Foreign Economic Administration, in Federal Security Administration, in the medical branch of Army-Air Forces, in Chemical Welfare Division etc. The expertise of anthropologists was recognized in a variety of situations. Their roles were basically like advisers. Sometimes they advised the government of an emergent nation about building of roads, bridges, dams etc. and sometimes helped a public health specialist in epidemiology by advising regarding the control of Malaria, Leprosy, Tuberculosis, etc. He might act as an economist, an educator or an agronomist.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest. The fields include administration, medicine and public health, education, industry, economic development, community development and also the areas of race and ethnic relations with social policy issues. The opinions of anthropologists have even found valuable in the needs of the athletics, defence services, forensic science and criminology, eugenics, national integration and international relations. Their views are also respected in museums and art gallery. (Jitendu, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anthropometry and Seating accommodation and cockpit<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In studies central to the human physique in relation to its environment, many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women. They emphasized the need to design the seats and make them more comfortable for the larger public, since they knew about and understood that a correlation between health and a good posture existed.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Hooton while conducting research on seating accommodation in train uncovered that certain sitting arrangements kept the body of an individual in a bad posture, which could result in various disabilities in skeletal, muscular and other organic parts of the body\u201d (Jaiswal, 2011). While, on the other hand, alternative sitting arrangements, in fact corrected posture, enhanced alertness and endurance, and improved circulation and respiration.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">After analyzing the variations in anthropometrics in regards to body measurements, the seats on defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit were redesigned, and were then continued to be used in other areas that designed office chairs, seats in educational institutes, and even commercial vehicles.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Albert Damon and Francis Randall, two physical anthropologists, were employed by the American Army Airforces to work on problems experienced by aviators and the area of space they had to sit in\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">the aeroplanes. Here, they were asked to conduct research and \u201cto provide information on human dimensions, human muscle strength, and human comfort\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">After extensive applied research the anthropologist teams discovered that in the area of human strength measurement they had to focus on the strength of the pilots as well as the \u201cmost efficient angle at which the muscle force could be applied in the cockpit in operating foot pedals\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958). The team also realized that they had to adjust the cockpits to suit the cultural variations of bone density between the different pilots and this involved projects on \u201cthe prone position in bed for pilots, the supine seat for pilots, and the control stick grip development for fighter airplanes\u201d (Hansen and Cornog, 1958), after various measurements in anthroposcopy and anthropometry were considered.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Furthermore, technological advancements have also driven physical anthropological work in the army. Applied physical anthropologists work on the soldier\u2019s gear in regards to the study of anthropometry, which included equipment such as laser aiming devices, night vision goggles, heads-up displays for communication and navigation, as well as their clothing. This required the applied research of physical anthropologists since they studied how the equipment and clothing \u201cimposed restrictions on the ability of a soldier to move\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Here, the biomechanical analysis done by applied physical anthropologists helped the US army to understand the restrictions and aided alterations to designs \u201cso that their impact on movement is minimized\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Even though applied physical anthropology may not be as high profile or glamorous as the other fields of applied research, it is said to be both challenging and rewarding, since applied physical anthropologist have the ability to \u201ctake a complex mix of information from many fields, such as engineering, clothing design, and product manufacturing, and integrate anthropometry into the design process\u201d (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Thus, the greatest award is seeing the application of the research in a direct manner which may ensure the safety of many individuals.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces<\/strong><\/p>\n<div>\n<p>\u00a0 \u00a0 In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks \u2013 like:<\/p>\n<p>1.\u00a0 At the operational level, in the planning phase;<\/p>\n<p>2.\u00a0 Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas;<\/p>\n<p>3.\u00a0 During the training for missions and in higher education.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events. In this case, the local cultural differences, local language recognition, building and exploring a network of contacts, tracing political units, these all can provide such information to the operational planning level that can make the evacuation and the start of workflow more efficient, economical and faster. Inclusion of first contact with the local population can only be executed by a qualified specialist, but a time of keeping in touch is also helpful when an already known specialist negotiates in a foreign country with foreign leaders.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">On a tactical level, the military anthropologist has to appear on the spot, operate locally with the military units and continuously collect information about the state between the military and the civilian sector, and communicate with local leaders and the local population. Without this knowledge, the relocation and work of military units is more dangerous, more expensive and takes more time. Thanks to a social scientist\u2019s research, more detailed and multidirectional information can be collected about the culture and the troops are more sensitive to changes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The disclosed information will not only be used for command and reconnaissance elements, but it can be integrated into the next shift\u2019s training, not to mention its role in military higher education, with which we will be able to train multi\u2013dimensional thinking military leaders, who will be able to meet the challenges of the future (Sztankai, 2014).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government. They may be directly involved in planning and policy-making activities, obtaining jobs in government funding bodies, or senior administrative roles. Equally, they may be part of advisory or lobbying groups that indirectly inform\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">government practice, in grassroots advocacy, or in agencies responsible for carrying out government activities in public services such as health, welfare, housing or education.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Almost every aspect of government decision-making benefits from a deep understanding of the social and cultural dynamics of the actors involved. Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials. In these situations, anthropologists need to become skilled in communicating anthropological knowledge and insight to non-specialists, and demonstrating how anthropology can transcend disciplinary boundaries.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Most jobs within the government sector demanding a certain level of responsibility and management will require entrants to have specialist knowledge and skills gained from a combination of a postgraduate degree and previous work experience, or advanced training.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Many government-funded projects and organizations within the country are devoted to helping young people gain experience in the sector. Students can become youth ambassadors, take part in political campaigns and rallies, or volunteer in human resource services. Whether you are a student at secondary school or university, or no longer a student, there are many ways you can become involved (Royal Anthropological Institute. 2017).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">anthropologists solved many political and military matters<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>you can view video on Anthropology and Defence Research<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/LwuV4e0XX00\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>GLOSSARY<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Applied Anthropology<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Applied anthropology, also known as \u201cpracticing anthropology,\u201d is defined as the practical application of anthropological method and theory to the needs of society. It is, quite simply, anthropology put to good use. This fifth field of anthropology has increased dramatically in the past three decades.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Military \/ Defence Studies<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defense Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military \/ Defense Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges \/ universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defense, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Military Anthropology<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In its broadest sense, \u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d covers a variety of distinct activities, including, perhaps most dramatically, \u201cembedding\u201d anthropologists with military troops in combat zones (in Afghanistan, Iraq, East Timor, and other locations), where they assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Albert Damon and Francis Randall, two physical anthropologists, were employed by the American Army Airforces to work on problems experienced by aviators and the area of space they had to sit in the aeroplanes. Here, they were asked to conduct research and \u201cto provide information on human dimensions, human muscle strength, and human comfort\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks \u2013 like 1. At the operational level, in the planning phase; 2. Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas; 3. During the training for missions and in higher education<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Interesting facts<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The four subfields all \u201cgather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Applied anthropology is directly \u201cinfluenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Military \/ Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cmilitary anthropology\u201d assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">anthropologists solved many political and military matters<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References and Suggested Reading<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">American Anthropological Association. &#8220;What is Anthropology?&#8221; (http:\/\/www.aaanet.org \/about\/whatisanthropology.cfm).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Barret, S., 2011. Anthropology: A Student&#8217;s Guide to Theory and Method. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chambers, E., 1985. Applied Anthropology: A Practical Guide. Englewoods Cliffs: Prentice Hall.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Corner, B. &amp; Gordon, C., 1996. Applied Physical Anthropology in the US Army, Natick: US Army Natick Research, Development, and Engineering Centre.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">David Price. 2013. Anthropology and Militarism. Oxford Bibliographies.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dirkmaat, D. C., Cabo, L. L., Ousley, S. D. &amp; Symes, S. A., 2008. New Perspectives in Forensic Anthropology, s.l.: Mercyhurst College.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Hansen, R. and Cornog, D., 1958. Annotated bibliography of applied physical anthropology in human engineering, pennsylvania: aero medical laboratory.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Haviland, W., 2011. Anthropology: The Human Challenge. 13th ed. Canada: Wadsworth.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal, A., 2011. Applied Physical Anthropology. [Online] Available at: http:\/\/anthropologicalstudy. coml\/2011\/03applied-physical-anthropology.html?m=1<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal A. 2013, Human Genetics and Applied Biophysical anthropology, Heritage publisher, 258-270.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jaiswal A. 2012, Anthropo-medical profile of Textile workers, Alfa publication, 297-314<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jitendu Sarkar, Anthropology: Uses of Anthropology 2016 YourArticleLibrary.com,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Jurmain, R., Kilgore, L. &amp; Trevanthan, W., 2011. Essentails of Physical Anthopology. 8th ed. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kedia, Satish, and Willigen J. Van (2005). Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application. Westport, Conn: Praeger. 16, 150.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">McKern, T., 1966. Readings in Physical Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs: Prenctice-Hall.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Montagu, A., 1960. An Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 3rd ed. Springfield: Charls C Thomas Publisher.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Podolefskey,\u00a0 A.\u00a0 &amp;\u00a0 Brown,\u00a0 P.,\u00a0 1997.\u00a0 Applying\u00a0 Anthropology:\u00a0 An\u00a0 Introductory\u00a0 Reader. Mountain View: Mayfair Publications.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Royal Anthropological Institute. 2017. Career Opportunities in Politics, Government, and Activism Contrada, J. Illustration &amp; Artwork, ESRC.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Said, Edward W. (1994). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sztankai Kriszti\u00e1n, 2014. Place and role of cultural anthropology in the Military. AARMS Vol. 13, No. 1 (2014) 113\u2013116<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Shell-Duncan, Bettina, and Ylva Hernlund (2000). Female &#8220;circumcision&#8221; in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. p. 25.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Scupin, R. &amp; DeCorse, C., 2008. Anthropology: A Global Perspective. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Van Willigen, J., 1993. Applied Anthropology: An Introduction. Washington: Bergin and Garvey Publishers.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":20,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dr-ajeet-jaiswal"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[64],"license":[],"class_list":["post-195","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dr-ajeet-jaiswal"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/195","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/195\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":201,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/195\/revisions\/201"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/195\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=195"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=195"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=195"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp16\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=195"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}