28 Physiological Anthropology in India

Urvashi Gupta and Meenal Dhall

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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Subject matter of Physiological Anthropology
3. Physiological Anthropology studies done in India Summary
Learning Objectives:
  • To understand the meaning of physiological anthropology and to know about its subject matter.
  • To gain insights about the area of study of physiological anthropology.
  • To know about the trends of physiological anthropology in India.
  • To get familiarize with the studies done in India until presently.
1. Introduction
Anthropology is the only specialization in the pool of academic disciplines that report human beings in relationship with other organisms from both biological and socio-cultural perspectives. Anthropology acts as a viable and appropriate intellectual forum for looking at a phenomenon, be it in form of an ailment, a custom or behavior – from a bio-cultural or a bio-behavioral approach. Anthropology has united different disciplines into a meaningful network of knowledge for human society. This has extended the horizons of Anthropology by applying anthropological research and analysis into action and development programs. Anthropology has been associated with various sciences and has not lost its connections with any of them rather it has incorporated all or part of them into its own subject matter and often employs their techniques as well.
Anthropology has an orientation, set of research styles and methods that give it a distinguished position within the social sciences. This anthropological orientation is ethnographic by nature, concerned with meanings rather than measurements, with everyday life of communities rather than formal abstractions. Fieldwork methodology, participant observation, empirical studies and micro-level analysis focus on complex human relationships and social bonding with the aim of highlighting the multitude factors underlying such behavior patterns. Objectivity and the ability to relate to cultural patterns of different populations/ethnic groups in particular, make Anthropology unique as a discipline.
Applied Anthropology is the application of anthropological theory and knowledge to propose solutions to problems that exist in various facets of human course of life and action. Applied Anthropology brings into play anthropological techniques to areas not only of social concern and to the growth and development of society but also of biological aspects of human. The immediate biological response to any stress, environmental or psychological is physiological in nature which often is reversible once the stress is removed.
2. SUBJECT MATTER OF PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
As a branch of Biology, Physiology deals with functioning and activities inclusive of all physical and chemical processes of living organisms and their parts. Physiology extends its knowledge from the molecular and cellular level to tissue, organ and whole system level. It relates to different components of our body, the functioning of organs and organ systems, how they work within the body to respond to challenges, how they all interact to make life possible. Physiology has something to say about each and every aspect of life, whereby their integrated approach makes the physiologists an invaluable contributor in studies and research works ranging from genetics to psychology. Under its applied aspect, physiology considers functioning and malfunctioning of parts of human body with reference to health and disease in areas relating to medicine, problems of animals, plants and microbial performances, and their responses leading to harmful effects over the environment under the areas relating to ecology.
These days, in Science there is a trend of looking downwards rather than upwards at molecular mechanisms seeking for the often less tractable problems posed by a system as a whole. Human Physiology is no exception to this, expanding knowledge about how the molecules translate into function and malfunction in an organism as a whole. When observed carefully, one can feel Physiological understanding is present behind every major medical breakthrough. It provides a bridge between scientific discoveries and their application in medical science. Physiology is split into many disciplines covering topics such as exercise, adaptation, evolution and defense. Broadly following systems are studied under Physiology:
  • Circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, blood and its properties along with of blood circulation functioning while healthy and when sick.
  • Digestive system chalk-out the movement of food and nutrition, from mouth to anus which includes the study of spleen, liver, and pancreas, conversion of food into fuel and its final exit from the body.
  • Endocrine system is the study of endocrine hormones that transfer signals throughout the organism, helping it to get responded in return. Major endocrine glands-pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids and gonads under major focus, but nearly all organs release endocrine hormones.
  • Immune system deals with the body’s natural defense system that comprises of white blood cells, thymus and lymph systems. A complex arrangement of receptors and molecules (antibodies and cytokines) combine to protect the host from attacks by pathogens.
  • Integumentary system takes into consideration skin, hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
  • Musculoskeletal system includes skeleton, muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone marrow and check how bones store calcium and phosphate.
“Physiology sits at the heart of many related subjects” (Source: http://www.physoc.org/first-visit/what-is-physiology)
  • Nervous system focuses on the central nervous system-brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system. Study of nervous system includes research related to senses, memory, emotion, movement and thought.
  • Renal/urinary system, including kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra, also checks removal of water from blood, production of urine that carries waste away.
  • Reproductive system consisting of the gonads and sex organs also includes investigation of the way a fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.
  • Respiratory system that consists of nose, nasopharynx, trachea and lungs also includes the study of the mechanism that brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.
Apart from the study of all these above described systems and mechanisms, Physiology is seen contributing to the development of following sub-disciplines under it, as:
  • Cell physiology studies the way cells work and interact, mostly being concentrated on membrane transport and neuron transmission mechanisms.
  • Systems physiology focuses on the computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. It describes the way individual cells/components of a system works over a certain converge to respond as a whole. Investigation of metabolic networks and cell signaling procedures are undertaken under this field.
  • Evolutionary physiology studies the way systems/parts of systems have adapted and changed over multiple generations. Research topics in this field cover a lot of ground including the role of behavior in evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation to geographic variation.
  • Defense physiology traces changes that occur as a reaction to a potential threat such as preparation for the fight-or-flight response.
  • Exercise physiology is the study of physiology of physical exercise which includes research into bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function, biomechanics, hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function and nervous system function.
Physiology focuses over functioning rather than structure. Comprehensive functional specializations in the form of regulation, transport, metabolism and information transfer have gained importance over structural studies of organ systems. It is so because analysis of an organ system generally involves studies at cellular or molecular level and functional aspect of studies accommodates such studies better than the organ-system approach. Early in the twentieth century much stress was laid on cells as functional units and thus maintaining a view that all physiology is essentially cell physiology, for which all teaching should be pivoted around the properties of cell. Later to which similar emphasis was made at a new and more fundamental level – the molecules, constituents of cell. However, now Physiology encompasses molecules, cells, organs, and different types of animals, including humans. Results from such studies not only enhance grounds for human physiology but, simultaneously, also generate new dilemmas that extend to evolution and ecology.
Physiological Anthropology, as a sub branch of Anthropology, overlaps with both Physiology and Anthropology in terms of tools and techniques used and methodology employed. Exploration and investigation of the functioning of human body, assessing human adaptability to the environment and considering the socio-biological consequences over human adaptation to current environment are the subject matter of Physiological Anthropology. Diversity in environmental adaptability and its mechanisms considering techno-adaptability are investigated from the prospect of physiological polytypism, whole-body coordination and functional potentiality, the three major keywords in physiological anthropological research. Diversity arises not only as an inherent component but also occurs as a consequence of adaptations taking place over a lifetime, contributing to the evolution of a species. Such adaptability phenomena are elucidated by various ecological rules. Explaining thermal adaptability, Allen’s rule states that certain extremities (arms, legs, ears, snout/nose) of animals are comparatively shorter in colder parts that those living in warmer regions. Similarly, Bergmann’s rule also conveys that species occupying colder regions tend to have smaller body size and smaller surface area for least dissipation of heat in cold environment, while those living in warmer regions have larger bodies and surface area enabling enough heat dissipation in hot environment. Gloger’s rule claim that darker skin pigment increases in skin with increase in the environmental temperature. Another rule popular as Thomson-Buxton rule argues that organisms living in hot and humid environment tend to have shirt and broad nose/snout as compared to those living in colder areas having long and narrow nose. Thermal adaptability and altitude compliance reviewed with emphasis on ‘functional potentiality’ is another field of interest of Physiological Anthropology.
Bipedalism, key adaptation enabling Homo sapiens to walk and maintain an upright posture might lead to the need for having increased blood pressure to pump blood to the height of brain, while the venous return to heart tends to decrease against gravitational stress that is actually maintained through orthostatic cardiovascular response. Many studies have been done in Physiological Anthropology with the aim of investigating circulatory dynamics and orthostatic responses to postural change. Very recently, work on genetic adaptations has also gained an important place in subject matter of this applied anthropological discipline. Population based data collection is carried using various anthropological techniques beginning with the chief method of intensive fieldwork which then consists of questionnaires, interview, genealogy, family history, anthropometry, spirometry, physiological markers’ assessment, fitness tests, molecular methods, etc. Participants over whom the research studies are carried out are given counseling and suggestions from time to time, and sometimes even need-based interventions are also made to guide and aware them about the situation.
3. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES DONE IN INDIA
Elaborating on the physiological aspect of work trend and status of research in India, vast expanse of diversity has been witnessed depending upon the type of study and investigation taken over since the end of twentieth century until present day. Different themes such as anthropometry, obesity, body composition, secular trends, nutritional status, reproductive health, maternal health and care have always been instrumental part of physiological anthropology research in India. However, as late as a decade before or so, stretch of exploration in physiological anthropology had started considering non-communicable disorders other than obesity such as hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and many more, too. Assessing lifestyle patterns in terms of stress and physical activity also took an important place in Physiological anthropology. Adaptation and acclimatization studies, and sports physiology and kinanthropometry are also taken over under its umbrella. Gerontology and ageing processes are also being considered under the subject matter of Physiological anthropology. Numerous aspects related to metabolic syndrome, hematology, cardiovascular performance and respiratory performance form significant sub-division of Physiological anthropology. Apart from this, Physiological anthropology also gives way to research in defense field and ergonomics for designing and customizing different commodities from clothing, arm rest chairs and other machines/instruments of daily need.
In a study done by Satwanti et. al., 1977, body density of Punjabi women belonging to the age group of 18-30 years was worked upon. Its correlation with a set of 16 selected body measurements was determined. Twelve regression equations previously published in different research studies, predicting body density from anthropometric data were also applied to the subjects chosen under this study. Several similar studies have been conducted by Satwanti et. al., 1978, 1980; Verma et. al., 1987; Bharadwaj et. al., 1990, that worked on body composition and anthropometry. In the former study body density of 170 women of age group 16-24 years was found experimentally through water displacement technique. Using standard methods 44 measurements were taken on each of them. Multiple regression equations were developed from linear regression using the predicted body density, body fat percentage and lean body mass from different body measurements. In the other work body fat, body water, mineral-bone density and cell solids were reported using densitometric and anthropometric techniques for 230 young India women. Comparative analysis was done for these components between young India men and women, showing clear sexual dimorphism in fat and water content of body. In another study, 279 Lodha males of west Bengal were considered from age ranging between 9-20 years. Anthropometric measurements were noted, rapid fitness index was calculated, pulse rate and blood pressure were recorded and grip strength was also measured. Correlation coefficient was worked upon for these variables. In the latter research study, on 93 Indian sportsmen and athletes body density, extreme segment volume and total body volume were recorded along with 15 other anthropometric measurements. The group mainly included runners, boxers, basketball players, football players, gymnasts, wrestlers, swimmers and a control group that consisted of soldiers not participating in such sports.
In one of the studies, secular growth trend was recorded for Rang Bhotias and Raji tribes of Himalayas using stature, whereby positive inclination was recorded for both the groups. 4400 India Army personnel were chosen for a study that meant to evolve size rolls for trousers and shirts for them. Linear regression technique was used to predict clothing measurement from body measurements. Age at menarche and at menopause for three groups of Bhotia females living at high altitude of North India were recorded by Kapoor and Kapoor, 1986 in another study. Tendency towards increase in age at menarche with an increase in altitude was observed. Also early onset of menarche was found to be associated with early onset of menopause and similarly with late age of menarche. For assessing structural and physiological changes with age among institutionalized and non-institutionalized males, a study was carried out consisting of 188 males belonging to the age group of 60-89 years. Eight anthropometric measurements and our physiological measurements were recorded for this purpose. Data was collected from the city of Delhi in the year 2004. Another study aimed at assessing the socio-demographic factors and anthropometric variables in association with central adiposity and cardiovascular diseases was undertaken during 2010 among the Gaddi tribal women. It had been found from the study that overweight and higher central obesity posed chances of predisposing a person to pre-hypertension and hypertension.
In order to assess the impact of ageing on body composition in relation with differential contribution of skinfold thickness at various sites, a study was carried out by Kapoor et. al., 2012. 1571 tribal males from various parts of India aged 20-99 years were categorized into two groups, aged 20-59 years and 60-99 years to meet the objective of the study. BMI, GMT, body fat percentage and muscle mass were computed and analyzed in relation to differential response of various skinfold thicknesses for the two age groups. Highly significant changes in skinfold thicknesses at various sites with ageing proposed these skinfold measurements as excellent indicators of body composition dynamics. In one study taken over by Sinha et al., 2010, relationship between menstrual cycle and adiposity measures was evaluated among 415 premenopausal women in the ages range 22–50 years residing in Delhi. Adiposity was assessed through BMI and by using Bio-electric impedance method. Information regarding their physical activity pattern and menstrual cycle was also recorded and age at menarche was obtained through recall method.
Dhall et al., 2012 conducted a cross-sectional study with sample size of 96 adult participants, in which anthropometric measurements and blood pressure were noted using standardized techniques. Adiposity markers- body mass index (BMI), waist hip ratio (WHR), waist height ratio (WHtR) and grand mean thickness (GMT) were computed. For genetic analysis, blood was withdrawn and DNA was extracted, and other molecular techniques were employed. In a study aimed to evaluate the association of gender-dependent expression of angiotensin converting enzyme gene polymorphism with adiposity markers and blood pressure, 57 Ao Nagas residing in Delhi were included, carried out by Pongen et al., 2016. Anthropometric measurements and blood pressure were recorded using standardized techniques. Adiposity indices (BMI, WHR and WHtR) were computed. Body fat percentage was assessed with bioelectric impedance technique using Tanita Body composition analyzer. Intravenous blood samples were withdrawn for DNA extraction and genotyping of ACE gene (I/D) polymorphism that was achieved through polymerase chain reaction.
Hypertension and adiposity act as key risk factors for developing cardiovascular diseases. So, a study was performed by Kapoor et. al., 2012 for reporting the prevalence of hypertension and its potential predictors among six tribal populations of India. For this, 910 adult males were considered. Anthropometric measurements, physiological measurements and socio-demographic characteristics were recorded, general and regional adiposity, muscle diameter and fat percentage were noted. Blood pressure and anthropometric measurements are significant for evaluating health among children, adolescents and adults. With the aim to study blood pressure and body dimensions and to find out the prevalence of overweight/obesity and hypertension among adults, Dua et.al., 2014 conducted a research study. In this cross-sectional study, people belonging to the Punjabi community, residing in Roshanara area and Jaina building in Delhi, for the past 20 years and aged 18-50 years were assessed. The study determined a significant positive correlation of BMI, fat percentage, and blood pressure to both SBP as well as DBP. Odds ratio revealed that overweight/obese subjects were more likely to have hypertension compared to those with normal BMI. Gupta and Kapoor, 2012 did a study to determine cut-offs of anthropometric markers to detect hypertension in an endogamous North Indian population. The cross-sectional study was carried out on 578 adult Aggarwal Baniya subjects. Individual body weight, height, waist circumference, hip circumference, blood pressure were assessed. The cut-off points for detecting cardiovascular risk factors among this population were lower than the criteria described by the World Health Organization. BMI is a significant tool for computing nutritional status. Increased cases of obesity, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases mainly among adults in developing countries require documentation of relevant data for eliminating such health issues. In a much recent study by Dua et. al., 2016 aimed to determine the association of blood pressure, BMI, and age among Punjabis of Gurmandi area of Delhi. 148 males and 140 females ranging in age from 18-50 years were included. It was observed that both SBP and DBP increased with age and the gender differences were statistically significant. Prehypertension was more among males as compared to females. The correlation between BMI and blood pressure was positive and statistically significant.
In a study carried out by Tandon et. al. 2011 aimed to investigate prevalence of obesity and its covariates including age among adult Khatri males and females consisted of 805 subjects between age of 18 years to 71 years residing in Shahjahanpur city, Uttar Pradesh were studied cross sectionally. The study highlighted the trend of obesity in that population and also discussed in detail the factors that are responsible for it. Another cross sectional study was conducted among 280 adult patients between 20-40 years at different stages of tuberculosis (TB) treatment by Tungdim et. al., 2015. Data was gathered from various DOTS centres in Manipur, Northeast India. Anthropometric measurements and adiposity indices – body mass index (BMI), waist hip ratio (WHR), waist height ratio (WHtR) and grand mean thickness (GMT) were studied. Wasting of muscle mass and reduction in fat percentage because of chronic situation in TB and overall improvement in these components with antitubercular treatment was noticed. This study suggested that body composition is extremely useful in indicating temporal recovery of patients undergoing tuberculosis treatment and determine treatment outcome.
Apart from the studies mentioned above, there exists a huge list of research and explorative works undertaken by anthropology under the sub field of Physiological anthropology encompassing facets ranging from variation, adaptability to body functioning. Correlation between ecology and human beings is also well demonstrated in their different works. Also, the subject matter of Physiological anthropology not just target the diseases/disorders-acute/chronic, communicable/non-communicable, infectious/non-infectious, lifestyle/metabolic, associated with children/adult/maternal care, but also suggest possible measures/care/precautions to be taken in order to improve upon the condition. As a sub branch of Anthropology, Physiological anthropology studies human inhabiting any geographical place/condition (highland/plains, tribes/ caste groups, urban/rural), belonging to any age range, or involved in any occupation or activity (non-sportsperson/ sportsperson).
Summary
Anthropology has united different disciplines into a meaningful network of knowledge for human society. This has extended the horizons of Anthropology by applying anthropological research and analysis into action and development programs. Applied Anthropology is the application of anthropological theory and knowledge to propose solutions to problems that exist in various facets of human course of life and action. Applied Anthropology brings into play anthropological techniques to areas not only of social concern and to the growth and development of society but also of biological aspects of human.
Physiological Anthropology, as a sub branch of Anthropology, overlaps with both Physiology and Anthropology in terms of tools and techniques used and methodology employed. Exploration and investigation of the functioning of human body, assessing human adaptability to the environment and considering the socio-biological consequences over human adaptation to current environment are the subject matter of Physiological Anthropology. Different themes such as anthropometry, obesity, body composition, secular trends, nutritional status, reproductive health, maternal health and care have always been instrumental part of physiological anthropology research in India. However, as late as a decade before or so, stretch of exploration in physiological anthropology had started considering non-communicable disorders other than obesity such as hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and many more, too. Assessing lifestyle patterns in terms of stress and physical activity also took an important place in Physiological anthropology. Gerontology and ageing processes are also being considered under the subject matter of Physiological anthropology. Numerous aspects related to metabolic syndrome, hematology, cardiovascular performance and respiratory performance form significant sub-division of Physiological anthropology. Apart from this, Physiological anthropology also gives way to research in defense field and ergonomics for designing and customizing different commodities from clothing, arm rest chairs and other machines/instruments of daily need.
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References

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    Weblinks

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  • Physiology. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/physiology
  • http://www.backyardnature.net/