6 Exercise perceptions on the basis of physiological functions

Diptendu Chatterjee

Contents:

Perception and exercise

Kinanthropometry

Kinansiology

Physical exercise – perception

Changing perception of exercise and body function

Effect of Physical exercise with body function – Physical and mental

Exercise prescription

Learning Objectives:

To study the perception of physical exercise and body function.
To study the trend of perception on the changing scenario.

Kinanthropometry is defined as the study of human size, shape, proportion, composition, maturation, and gross function, in order to understand growth, exercise, performance, and nutrition. It is a scientific discipline that is concerned with the measurement of individuals in a variety of morphological perspectives, its application to movement and those factors which influence movement, including: components of body build, body measurements, proportions, composition, shape and maturation; motor abilities and cardio respiratory capacities; physical activity including recreational activity as well as highly specialized sports performance. The predominant focus is upon obtaining detailed measurements upon the body composition of a given person. Kinanthropometry is the interface between human anatomy and movement. It is the application of a series of measurements made on the body and from these we can use the data that we gather directly or perform calculations using the data to produce various indices and body composition predictions and to measure and describe physique.

Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, biomechanical, and psychological mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health include biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques (Physical activity Guider, 2012).

Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness and performance also. Regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent different non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension followed by obesity. It may also help prevent stress and depression, and insomnia, help promote or maintain positive self-esteem, improve mental health, maintain steady digestion and treat constipation and gas, regulate fertility health.

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body: Aerobic exercise is any physical activity that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more oxygen than it would while resting. Anaerobic exercise, which includes strength and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and tone muscles, as well as improve bone strength, balance, and coordination. Flexibility exercises stretch and lengthen muscles. Activities such as stretching help to improve joint flexibility and keep muscles limber. The goal is to improve the range of motion which can reduce the chance of injury. Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed (Rosenbarn, 2014).

Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels. Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work. This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor saving technology in the home, and fewer active recreational pursuits. Personal lifestyle changes however can correct the lack of physical exercise.

Individuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels. Increases in muscle size from resistance training is primarily determined by diet and testosterone. This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population. Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life. Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. The neurobiological effects of physical exercise are numerous and involve a wide range of interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition (Sajatonic, 2017).

Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes muscle hypertrophy and gains in muscle strength by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB). The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via phosphorylation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and subsequent activation of mTORC1, which leads to protein biosynthesis in the ribosome via phosphorylation of mTORC1’s immediate targets (the p70S6 kinase and the translation repressor protein 4EBP1).

Cultural perception – Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising. In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors, and in others, people exercise primarily outdoors. People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to geographic location, social tendencies, or otherwise. In this connection body function is very important, it means the particular action of an organ or tissue Goodman et al, 2002).

A number of health benefits have been identified such as –

Exercise controls weight
Exercise combats health conditions and diseases
Exercise improves mood
Exercise boosts energy
Exercise promotes better sleep
Exercise puts the spark back into your sex life
Exercise can be fun … and social interaction.

Changing perception of exercise

Press pause. You can’t just plop a new perception on top of an old one. First you have to press pause. You need to get a good look at what is truly going on. This is the kind of slowing down and pause you can take when it comes to seeing your SELF. Mindfulness, awareness, meditation, mindful movement practices, and self-care practices are all good ways to hit the pause button.

Pattern interrupt. You need to interrupt the current patters of thought and belief.

Literally get out of dodge. Take a vacation (or a couple of day stay-cation), change your daily rhythm and make it a little retreat.

Clean out your fridge. Get rid of anything that doesn’t nourish your health, make a ritual out of it,

Allowing. Speaking of creating new habits. Remember when I said determination and willpower are only catalysts for change? The easiest way to create new habits is to allow them.

Claiming. This is where you bring back a bit more of your own conscious decision making, For best example Depression is common in people with Parkinson’s disease (PD), and exercise is known to improve depression and PD. However, lack of motivation and low self-efficacy can make exercise difficult for people with PD and comorbid depression (PD-Dep).

Physical fitness is a state of health and well-being and, more specifically, the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Physical fitness is generally achieved through proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and sufficient rest.

Fitness is defined as the quality or state of being fit. A holistic definition of fitness is described by Greg Glassman in the CrossFit journal as an increased work capacity across broad times and modal domains; mastery of several attributes of fitness including strength, endurance, power, speed, balance and coordination and being able to improve the amount of work done in a given time with any of these domains. A well rounded fitness program will improve a person in all aspects of fitness, rather than one, such as only cardio/respiratory endurance or only weight training (Szuhany, 2014).

The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans was created by the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. This publication suggests that all adults should avoid inactivity to promote good health mentally and physically. For substantial health benefits, adults should participate in at least 150 minutes (two hours and 30 minutes) a week of moderate-intensity, or 75 minutes (1 hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity. Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, and preferably, it should be spread throughout the week.

Training – Specific or task-oriented fitness is a person’s ability to perform in a specific activity with a reasonable efficiency: for example, sports or military service. Specific training prepares athletes to perform well in their sport.

High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) – High Intensity Interval Training consists of repeated, short bursts of exercise, completed at a high level of intensity. These sets of intense activity are followed by a predetermined time of rest or low intensity activity. HIIT is a great alternative for those people because the duration of an HIIT session can be as short as 10 minutes, making it much quicker than conventional workouts.

Aerobic exercise

Cardiorespiratory fitness can be measured using VO2 max, a measure of the amount of oxygen the body can uptake and utilize. Aerobic exercise, which improves cardiorespiratory fitness, involves movement that increases the heart rate to improve the body’s oxygen consumption. This form of exercise is an important part of all training regiments ranging from professional athletes to the everyday person. Also, it helps increase stamina (Karen et al, 1997). Examples are:

Jogging – Running at a steady and gentle pace. This form of exercise is great for maintaining weight.
Elliptical Training – This is a stationary exercise machine used to perform walking, or running without causing excessive stress on the joints. This form of exercise is perfect for people with achy hips, knees and ankles.
Walking – Moving at a fairly regular pace for a short, medium or long distance.
Treadmill training – Many treadmills have programs set up that offers a numerous amount of different workout plans. One effective cardiovascular activity would be to switch between running and walking. Typically warm up first by walking and then switch off between walking for three minutes and running for three minutes.
Swimming – Using the arms and legs to keep oneself afloat and moving either forwards or backwards. This is a good full body exercise for those who are looking to strengthen their core while improving cardiovascular endurance.
Cycling – Riding a bicycle typically involves longer distances than walking or jogging. This is another low stress exercise on the joints and is great for improving leg strength.

Effects

Controlling blood pressure

Physical fitness has proven to result in positive effects on the body’s blood pressure because staying active and exercising regularly builds up a stronger heart. The heart is the main organ in charge of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure.

Cancer prevention

Centers for disease control and prevention provide lifestyle guidelines of maintaining a balanced diet and engaging in physical activity to reduce the risk of disease. The WCRF/ American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) published a list of recommendations that reflect the evidence they have found through consistency in fitness and dietary factors that directly relate to Cancer prevention.

The WCRF/AICR recommendations include the following:

“Be as lean as possible without becoming underweight
Each week, adults should engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity physical activity
Children should engage in at least one hour of moderate or vigorous physical activity each week
Be physically active for at least thirty minutes every day
Avoid sugar, limit the consumption of energy packed foods
Balance your diet with a variety of vegetables, grains, fruits, legumes, etc.
Limit sodium intake, the consumption of red meats and the consumption of processed meats
Limit alcoholic drinks to two for men and one for women a day”

These recommendations are also widely supported by the American Cancer Society. The guidelines have been evaluated and individuals that have higher guideline adherence scores substantially reduce cancer risk as well as help towards control with a multitude of chronic health problems. Regular physical activity is a factor that helps reduce an individual’s blood pressure and improves cholesterol levels, two key components that correlate with heart disease and Type 2 Diabetes. The American Cancer Society encourages the public to “adopt a physically active lifestyle” by meeting the criteria in a variety of physical activities such as hiking, swimming, circuit training, resistance raining, lifting, etc. It is understood that cancer is not a disease that can be cured by physical fitness alone, however because it is a multifactorial disease, physical fitness is a controllable prevention. The large associations tied with being physically fit and reduced cancer risk are enough to provide a strategy to reduce cancer risk. The American Cancer Society assorts different levels of activity ranging from moderate to vigorous to clarify the recommended time spent on a physical activity. These classifications of physical activity consider the intentional exercise and basic activities done on a daily basis and give the public a greater understanding by what fitness levels suffice as future disease prevention (Kylasov et al, 2011).

Inflammation

Studies have shown an association between increased physical activity and reduced inflammation. It produces both a short-term inflammatory response and a long-term anti-inflammatory effect. Physical activity reduces inflammation in conjunction with or independent of changes in body weight. However, the mechanisms linking physical activity to inflammation are unknown.

Immune system

Physical activity boosts the immune system. This is dependent on the concentration of endogenous factors (such as sex hormones, metabolic hormones and growth hormones), body temperature, blood flow, hydration status and body position.Physical activity has shown to increase the levels of natural killer (NK) cells, NK T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils, complements, cytokines, antibodies and T cytotoxic cells. However, the mechanism linking physical activity to immune system is not fully understood.

Cardiovascular disease prevention

Physical activity affects one’s blood pressure, cholesterol levels, blood lipid levels, blood clotting factors and the strength of blood vessels. All factors that directly correlate to cardiovascular disease. It also improves the body’s use of insulin. People who are at risk for diabetes, Type 2 (insulin resistant) especially, benefit greatly from physical activity because it activates a better usage of insulin and protects the heart. Those who develop diabetes have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. In a study where a sample of around ten thousand adults from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, physical activity and metabolic risk factors such as insulin resistance, inflammation, dyslipidemia were assessed. The study adjusted basic confounders with moderate/vigorous physical activity and the relation with CVD mortality. The results displayed physical activity being associated with a lower risk of CVD mortality that was independent of traditional metabolic risk factors.

The American Heart Association recommendations include the same findings as provided in the WCRF/ AICR recommendations list for people who are healthy. In regards to people with lower blood pressure or cholesterol, the association recommends that these individuals aim for around forty minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity around three or four times a week (Pederben, 2012).

Weight control

Achieving resilience through physical fitness promotes a vast and complex range of health related benefits. Individuals who keep up physical fitness levels generally regulate their distribution of body fat and stay away from obesity. Abdominal fat, specifically visceral fat, is most directly affected by engaging in aerobic exercise. Strength training has been known to increase the amount of muscle in the body, however it can also reduce body fat. Sex steroid hormones, insulin, and an appropriate immune response are factors that mediate metabolism in relation to the abdominal fat. Therefore, physical fitness provides weight control through regulation of these bodily functions.

Menopause and physical fitness

Menopause is the term that is used to refer to the stretch of both before and after a woman’s last menstrual cycle. There are an instrumental amount of symptoms connected to menopause, most of which can affect the quality of life of the women involved in this stage of her life. One way to reduce the severity of the symptoms is exercise and keeping a healthy level of fitness. Prior to and during menopause as the female body changes there can be physical, physiological or internal changes to the body. These changes can be prevented or even reduced with the use of regular exercise. These changes include;

Prevention of weight gain: around menopause women tend to experience a reduction in muscle mass and an increase in fat levels. Slight increases in physical exercise can help to prevent these changes.
Reduce the risk of breast cancer: due to the weight loss from regular exercise may offer protection from breast cancer.
Strengthen the bones: Physical activity can slow the bone loss associated with menopause, reducing the chance of bone fractures and osteoporosis.
Reduce the risk of disease: Excess weight can increase the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes, and the regular physical activity can counter these effects.
Boost the mood: By being involved in regular activities it can improve the psychological health, this can be the case at any age and not only for times during or after menopause.

The Melbourne Women’s Midlife Health Project provided evidence that showed over an eight-year time period 438 were followed. Even though the physical activity was not associated with VMS in this cohort at the beginning. Women who reported they were physically active everyday at the beginning were 49% less likely to have reported bothersome hot flushes. This is in contrast to women whose level of activity decreased and were more likely to experience bothersome hot flushes.

Depression and Anxiety

Physical fitness can enhance your mood through the release of dopamine, neurotransmitters, endorphins and endocannabinoids. A short workout session or walk can cause your body to release this chemical which causes individuals to feel better. Physical fitness increases your bodies temperature which results in a calming effect toward the individual.

Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is a widely known psychophysiological measure that is extensively used in the areas of sports and rehabilitation and investigated in the scientific field. Its applications involve monitoring during physical stress tests, prescription of exercise intensity, acute and chronic monitoring of training loads, and the prediction of maximum exercise capacity1-4. For a correct application of RPE, it is important to understand its meaning and to identify its origin and nature.

Preliminary research has shown that the efficacy of exercise prescription for depression is most optimal when prescribed to individuals who are most prone to respond. This idea of identifying individuals most prone to respond is based on a model developed in the 1950s; the Health Belief Model (HBM) which is the most commonly used theory in health education and promotion [Hayden]. The main concept of the HBM is that health behavior is determined by personal perceptions and/or beliefs about a disease and the strategies available to decrease its occurrence. The health belief model has been an effective theory used in prevention strategies for women with osteoporosis. In China, the HBM has also been used to successfully identify factors in the elderly population of patients who are most likely and unlikely to receive influenza vaccination. Looking at perception is essential to assess patient’s readiness and who is most likely to respond to prevention and treatment strategies.

Cardiac biomarkers

Prolonged exercise such as marathons can increase cardiac biomarkers such as troponin, B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and ischemia-modified (aka MI) albumin. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial infarction, or cardiac dysfunction. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed).

Human adaptations

Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.

Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them (Westerlind, 2013).

Education in exercise physiology

Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education. In Canada, one may obtain the professional certification title – Certified Exercise Physiologist for those working with clients (both clinical and non clinical) in the health and fitness industry. An exercise physiologist’s area of study may include but is not limited to biochemistry, bioenergetics, cardiopulmonary function, hematology, biomechanics, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and central and peripheral nervous system function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.

Health and risk assessment: In order to safely work with a client on the job, you must first be able to know the benefits and risks associated with physical activity. Examples of this include knowing specific injuries the body can experience during exercise, how to properly screen a client before their training begins, and what factors to look for that may inhibit their performance.

Exercise testing: Coordinating exercise tests in order to measure body compositions, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength/endurance, and flexibility. Functional tests are also used in order to gain understanding on a more specific part of the body. Once the information is gathered about a client, exercise physiologists must also be able to interpret the test data and decide what health-related outcomes have been discovered.

Exercise prescription: Forming training programs that best meet an individual’s health and fitness goals. Must be able to take into account different types of exercises, the reasons/goal for a client’s workout, and pre-screened assessments. Knowing how to prescribe exercises for special considerations and populations is also required. These may include age differences, pregnancy, joint diseases, obesity, pulmonary disease, etc.

Regular and vigorous exercisers appear to be the logical choice for studying the inherent aging process as they are essentially free from the complications of disuse. Cross-sectional studies of aging tend to depict an essentially smooth and progressive decrement of physiological function with increasing chronological age. On closer examination of such data, it is seen that although the young have high functional values and the very old low, between these limits, values are widely scattered (West Cott, 2014).

References

Goodman, C. C.; Kapasi, Z. F. (2002). The effect of exercise on the immune system. Rehabilitation Oncology. 20(1) : 13-15.
Karen Duong and Jenny Seung-Hyun Lee (1997). Percept Mot Skills , Perception of Exercise Lifestyle as a Valid Tool for Prevention and Treatment of Depression in Rural Communities. 1997;84(3Pt1):799-808.
Kylasov A, Gavrov S (2011). Diversity Of Sport: non-destructive evaluation. Paris: UNESCO: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems. pp. 462–491.
Pedersen, B. K.; Febbraio, M. A. (2012). Muscles, exercise and obesity: Skeletal muscle as a secretory organ. Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 8 (8): 457–65.
Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, Curtis J, Ward PB (2014). Physical activity interventions for people with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 75 (9): 964–974.
Sajatovic M, Ridgel AL, Walter EM, Tatsuoka CM, Colón-Zimmermann K, Ramsey RK, Welter E, Gunzler SA, Whitney CM, Walter BL. (2017). Patient Prefer Adherence. A randomized trial of individual versus group-format exercise and self-management in individuals with Parkinson’s disease and comorbid. 19;11:965-973.
Szuhany KL, Bugatti M, Otto MW (October 2014). A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor. J Psychiatr Res. 60C: 56–64.
Westcott, W.L.; La Rosa Loud, R. (2014). Strength for fat loss training. American Fitness. 32 (1): 18–22.
Westerlind, K. C. (2003). Physical activity and cancer prevention—mechanisms. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 35 (11): 1834–40.

Suggested Reading

Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. 2008