20 Anthropology and Defence Research

Ajeet Jaiswal

Contents:

1. Introduction:

2. Applied Anthropology

3. Military / Defence Studies

4. The scope of Military / Defence Studies

5. Anthropology and Militarism

6. Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research

7. Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army

8. Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces

9. Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government.

10. Summary

Learning objectives:

To provide an introduction to the field of Applied Anthropology and Defence research.
To include the Basic Concept of Military / Defence Studies, Anthropology and Militarism and Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research.
To enable the students at postgraduate level to understand the Role of Anthropology in Army, Air Forces, in US Army, in Hungarian Armed Forces and working at various levels of government.

Introduction:

Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology. According to William Haviland, “some anthropologists consider archaeology and linguistics as part of the broader study of human cultures” (Haviland, 2011), but these two subfields are also closely tied to physical anthropology. For example, even though linguistic anthropology has a deep focus on the cultural features of language, it also has a strong link to the evolution of language and the biological standing of speech studied within physical anthropology.

The four subfields all “gather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space” (Haviland, 2011), although each take a specific approach in the study of humankind. Here, they all “generate knowledge that has numerous practical applications” (Haviland, 2011), Thus, it can be said that many practitioners within the fields of anthropology practice applied anthropology. This entails the use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve practical problems, as it involves the active collaboration with communities of research by “setting goals, solving problems, and conducting research” (Haviland, 2011).

With this in mind, the discussion to follow will critically analyses the role of applied anthropology specifically in the subfield of anthropology and defence research in regards to what exactly are applied anthropology and defence research anthropology.

Applied Anthropology

Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations. Their work is often defined by a specific problem and not by the discipline itself. In addition, new terms for the role and the work have emerged. All this makes defining the content of the applied anthropological field quite difficult. Yet, simply, applied anthropology is anthropology put to use.

Scupin and DeCorse have argued that “one of the most important developments in the field of anthropology has been the growth of applied anthropology” (Scupin and DeCorse, 2008), which is the use of anthropological knowledge and data to offer practical solutions to modern day problems and concerns. Applied anthropology was assumed to have formed by the “disintegrating effects of asymmetrical cultural contact” (Haviland, 2011), because governments began to look at how anthropological research might help traditional groups in colonized territories struggling with the imposed economic, social, and political changes. This then expressed the need for a concept of applied anthropology to address the negative effects of policies.

The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems. Further, various kinds of anthropological problem-solving activities are types of applied anthropology. One can think of anthropology as having two aspects, one of which is concerned with the solution of theoretical problems and another which is concerned with the solution of practical problems. Here, practical work often serves as the basis of important theoretical developments and applied research.

With the growth of applied anthropology in becoming more and more remarkable, some of its supporters, such as Chambers, “have advocated that it be formally recognized as a fifth field in the discipline” (Barret, 2011). With the declining number of academic positions available to anthropology graduates, a large number of students are finding work outside universities in applied work. Here, the scholars are inclined to enter the applied field since “their vision of anthropology is more than understanding the social world; they want to improve it, to be agents of change” (Barret, 2011).

Chambers saw the application of anthropology by the mere fact that anthropologists had started to apply their knowledge and expertise in a wide variety of employment situations, as anthropologists were more likely to find work in the urban settings than find themselves situated among the more isolated communities. In doing so, the specialization in applied anthropology represented a “decision to enter a setting where interests that are strictly disciplinary play alongside concerns of a more diffuse and public nature” (Chambers, 1985).

Applied anthropology is directly “influenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making” (Chambers, 1985). Consequently, applied anthropology is then influenced by the ideological flows of the society in which it is widened and is also the result of the value commitments and interests of the practitioner.

In continuation, applied anthropologists need to know the knowledge, the methods of applications, and the work context in their specific domain of applied research. This all includes the practices associated with producing and communicating useful information in a policy or action setting, the various skills associated with being a change agent, and the variety of policies issued from government sources, firms and agencies that work in a research content area.

For that reason, applied anthropology is the concept commonly used by anthropologists to “describe their professional activities in programmes that have as primary goals changes in human behaviour believed to ameliorate contemporary social, economic, and technological problems rather than the development of social and cultural theory” (Van, 1993).

Military / Defence Studies

Military / Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military / Defence Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges / universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defence, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc.

The scope of Military / Defence Studies

Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world. This provides the broad field within which Nations of States and non-state factors interact. An attempt is made to provide for both of theoretical understanding of how and why Nations behave as they do and also a historical survey of the Major Trends in World Affairs. It also includes an understanding of Indian Military History, The Defence Organization of India, India’s National Security, the Economics of Defence.

Anthropology and Militarism

Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations. Whether it was anthropology’s development in the shadow of colonialism, settler colonialism, the expansion of empires, a range of military conquests, or the soft influx of military-linked funding for area studies or language acquisition, anthropology developed in situations involving military forces in ways that have not always been considered by the discipline. As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, and these militaries have recurrently attempted to draw on anthropological knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses (David, 2013).

In an episode made famous by Franz Boas’ post–World War I condemnation of archaeologist-spies, anthropologists used archaeological fieldwork as a pretense for spying for the Office of Naval Intelligence. The Second World War elevated the status of anthropology in military and intelligence circles, and the war raised awareness that anthropology could be applied to the war effort. During the 1960s, revelations of Project Camelot and America’s wars in Southeast Asia pushed many younger anthropologists to oppose military and intelligence agencies’ uses of anthropological information for warfare and counterinsurgency operations. In the United States, the controversy generated by anthropological contributions to operations during the late Vietnam War led the American Anthropological Association in 1971 to adopt its first Code of Ethics, the Principles of Professional Responsibility.

Soon, analyses linking the historical development of the discipline to colonialism extended these critiques from the present wars to the roots of the discipline itself. Anthropological engagements with the military raise ethical and political questions about the roles and responsibilities of anthropologists. The ethical issues involve questions of whether the use of anthropological data or methodologies violates basic anthropological ethical principles of obtaining voluntary informed consent, causing harm, or not issuing secret reports that studied populations cannot access (David, 2013).

In its broadest sense, “military anthropology” covers a variety of distinct activities, including, perhaps most dramatically, “embedding” anthropologists with military troops in combat zones (in Afghanistan, Iraq, East Timor, and other locations), where they assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.

Use of Anthropology in Defence Services and research

Since the days of colonialism, anthropology has served various interests of people. The earliest use was found in the political administration in England. The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies. But as the employer solely decided the objectives, the anthropologists hardly had any scope to understand the situation with empathy. The needs and consequences of the target-group community did not get any importance. However, the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.

Some anthropological training centers were established for future colonial rulers where ethnology and comparative linguistics occupied a prominent place. Anthropological surveys on colonial people were instituted from 1929, under the enthusiasm of B. Malinowski. Malinowski was able to use his concept of culture in this respect. To Malinowski culture was entirely humanistic which functioned to secure human survival. He chalked out a design for its application in human welfare.

In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933. The most significant use was noticed with agriculture. It helped in understanding the way of life of American farmers. However, the knowledge of anthropology as used in the office of Indian Affairs was almost similar to the colonial administration in England. None of them were conscious about the ethics. France, Belgium and Netherlands also started employing anthropologists to facilitate the administration of their colonies.

During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems. The situation got complicated with the Japanese prisoners who did not behave in the usual way. All of the Japanese soldiers who were captured in the battle showed a practice of self-killing before they were taken to the prison. Studies by the anthropologists on Japanese culture and character made the American military leaders aware that the Japanese soldiers preferred an honourable death in own hand because they considered capture as a matter of great disgrace. Anthropologists also informed that the Japanese regarded their emperor almost like god, his word was sufficient to cause all Japanese soldiers to lay down their arms. After working with the anthropologists, Americans not only learnt about the Japanese thought, they also acted as per the advice of the anthropologists to win the situations (Jitendu, 2016).

Since anthropologists solved many political and military matters, after the end of the world war, a considerable number of applied anthropologists were called upon to upgrade different other projects associated with health, economy, education etc. They also contributed in the fields of religion, art, system of value and personality structure.

They were no longer restricted to their colonialist and political image. A list furnished by Clyde Kluckhohn showed that the anthropologists of America worked in the various departments of state, in the office of strategic services, in the Board of economic Welfare, in the Military and Naval services, in the office of war information, in Peace Corps, in Foreign Economic Administration, in Federal Security Administration, in the medical branch of Army-Air Forces, in Chemical Welfare Division etc. The expertise of anthropologists was recognized in a variety of situations. Their roles were basically like advisers. Sometimes they advised the government of an emergent nation about building of roads, bridges, dams etc. and sometimes helped a public health specialist in epidemiology by advising regarding the control of Malaria, Leprosy, Tuberculosis, etc. He might act as an economist, an educator or an agronomist.

The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest. The fields include administration, medicine and public health, education, industry, economic development, community development and also the areas of race and ethnic relations with social policy issues. The opinions of anthropologists have even found valuable in the needs of the athletics, defence services, forensic science and criminology, eugenics, national integration and international relations. Their views are also respected in museums and art gallery. (Jitendu, 2016).

Anthropometry and Seating accommodation and cockpit

In studies central to the human physique in relation to its environment, many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women. They emphasized the need to design the seats and make them more comfortable for the larger public, since they knew about and understood that a correlation between health and a good posture existed.

Hooton while conducting research on seating accommodation in train uncovered that certain sitting arrangements kept the body of an individual in a bad posture, which could result in various disabilities in skeletal, muscular and other organic parts of the body” (Jaiswal, 2011). While, on the other hand, alternative sitting arrangements, in fact corrected posture, enhanced alertness and endurance, and improved circulation and respiration.

After analyzing the variations in anthropometrics in regards to body measurements, the seats on defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit were redesigned, and were then continued to be used in other areas that designed office chairs, seats in educational institutes, and even commercial vehicles.

Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces and US Army

Albert Damon and Francis Randall, two physical anthropologists, were employed by the American Army Airforces to work on problems experienced by aviators and the area of space they had to sit in the aeroplanes. Here, they were asked to conduct research and “to provide information on human dimensions, human muscle strength, and human comfort” (Hansen and Cornog, 1958).

After extensive applied research the anthropologist teams discovered that in the area of human strength measurement they had to focus on the strength of the pilots as well as the “most efficient angle at which the muscle force could be applied in the cockpit in operating foot pedals” (Hansen and Cornog, 1958). The team also realized that they had to adjust the cockpits to suit the cultural variations of bone density between the different pilots and this involved projects on “the prone position in bed for pilots, the supine seat for pilots, and the control stick grip development for fighter airplanes” (Hansen and Cornog, 1958), after various measurements in anthroposcopy and anthropometry were considered.

Furthermore, technological advancements have also driven physical anthropological work in the army. Applied physical anthropologists work on the soldier’s gear in regards to the study of anthropometry, which included equipment such as laser aiming devices, night vision goggles, heads-up displays for communication and navigation, as well as their clothing. This required the applied research of physical anthropologists since they studied how the equipment and clothing “imposed restrictions on the ability of a soldier to move” (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Here, the biomechanical analysis done by applied physical anthropologists helped the US army to understand the restrictions and aided alterations to designs “so that their impact on movement is minimized” (Corner and Gordon, 1996).

Even though applied physical anthropology may not be as high profile or glamorous as the other fields of applied research, it is said to be both challenging and rewarding, since applied physical anthropologist have the ability to “take a complex mix of information from many fields, such as engineering, clothing design, and product manufacturing, and integrate anthropometry into the design process” (Corner and Gordon, 1996). Thus, the greatest award is seeing the application of the research in a direct manner which may ensure the safety of many individuals.

Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces

In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks – like:

1. At the operational level, in the planning phase;

2. Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas;

3. During the training for missions and in higher education.

The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events. In this case, the local cultural differences, local language recognition, building and exploring a network of contacts, tracing political units, these all can provide such information to the operational planning level that can make the evacuation and the start of workflow more efficient, economical and faster. Inclusion of first contact with the local population can only be executed by a qualified specialist, but a time of keeping in touch is also helpful when an already known specialist negotiates in a foreign country with foreign leaders.

On a tactical level, the military anthropologist has to appear on the spot, operate locally with the military units and continuously collect information about the state between the military and the civilian sector, and communicate with local leaders and the local population. Without this knowledge, the relocation and work of military units is more dangerous, more expensive and takes more time. Thanks to a social scientist’s research, more detailed and multidirectional information can be collected about the culture and the troops are more sensitive to changes.

The disclosed information will not only be used for command and reconnaissance elements, but it can be integrated into the next shift’s training, not to mention its role in military higher education, with which we will be able to train multi–dimensional thinking military leaders, who will be able to meet the challenges of the future (Sztankai, 2014).

Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government

Anthropologists can be found working at various levels of government. They may be directly involved in planning and policy-making activities, obtaining jobs in government funding bodies, or senior administrative roles. Equally, they may be part of advisory or lobbying groups that indirectly inform government practice, in grassroots advocacy, or in agencies responsible for carrying out government activities in public services such as health, welfare, housing or education.

Almost every aspect of government decision-making benefits from a deep understanding of the social and cultural dynamics of the actors involved. Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials. In these situations, anthropologists need to become skilled in communicating anthropological knowledge and insight to non-specialists, and demonstrating how anthropology can transcend disciplinary boundaries.

Most jobs within the government sector demanding a certain level of responsibility and management will require entrants to have specialist knowledge and skills gained from a combination of a postgraduate degree and previous work experience, or advanced training.

Many government-funded projects and organizations within the country are devoted to helping young people gain experience in the sector. Students can become youth ambassadors, take part in political campaigns and rallies, or volunteer in human resource services. Whether you are a student at secondary school or university, or no longer a student, there are many ways you can become involved (Royal Anthropological Institute. 2017).

Summary

Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.
The four subfields all “gather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space”
Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.
The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.
Applied anthropology is directly “influenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making”
Military / Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.
Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.
Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.
As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.
“military anthropology” assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.
The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.
the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.
In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.
During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.
anthropologists solved many political and military matters
The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.
many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.
The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.
Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.

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GLOSSARY

Applied Anthropology

Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Applied anthropology, also known as “practicing anthropology,” is defined as the practical application of anthropological method and theory to the needs of society. It is, quite simply, anthropology put to good use. This fifth field of anthropology has increased dramatically in the past three decades.

Military / Defence Studies

Military / Defense Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world. Military / Defense Studies is currently taught only in a handful of colleges / universities in India. The approach to the study of national security is interdisciplinary and as such encompasses such aspects like anthropology, geopolitics and military geography, science and technology, economics of defense, conflict management and conflict resolution, etc

Military Anthropology

Physical Anthropology in the Army Air Forces

Action Anthropology in the Hungarian Armed Forces

In the Hungarian Armed Forces, at three different levels, action anthropologist perform their tasks – like 1. At the operational level, in the planning phase; 2. Tactical levels, the appearance in the mission areas; 3. During the training for missions and in higher education

Interesting facts

Over recent years it has been increasingly noticeable that individual anthropologist tend to specialize in the various four fields of mainstream anthropology, namely, physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology.
The four subfields all “gather and analyse data that are essential to explaining similarities and differences among humans, across time and space”
Many anthropologists have started to apply their knowledge in a wide variety of ways in many situations.
The subfield can be viewed as surrounding the variety of activities anthropologists now do, and have done in the past, when engaging in the solving practical problems.
Applied anthropology is directly “influenced by its relationship to current policy commitments and concerns, including attitudes and conventions as well as what constitutes effective public decision making”
Military / Defence Studies is also known by various names like defence and strategic studies, military science, war and national security studies, war and strategic studies in the world.
Defence Studies expose the individuals to an in-depth analysis of contemporary events and issues in this multilateral, unpredictable world.
Anthropology has a long and ambivalent relationship with military organizations.
As citizens, anthropologists periodically serve in militaries of their nations, attempted to draw on knowledge or practice for use in military conquest or to gather regional knowledge that has intelligence uses.
“military anthropology” assist military personnel on site with advice and consultation regarding strategic features of the local and regional culture.
The expertise of the anthropologists was utilized in tackling certain piecemeal problems in British colonies.
the duty of the anthropologists was chiefly concerned with the recording of the behaviors of the native people which prevented the administrators to take crude decisions and hasty political actions so that the whole situation would not go out of their hand.
In the United States anthropology began to be used in the office of Indian Affairs by 1933.
During the Second World War, United States Government hired many anthropologists to help in solving their military problems.
anthropologists solved many political and military matters
The work of the anthropologists ranges from tribal rehabilitation to population growth, malnutrition to adult education, vocational training to labour unrest.
many applied physical anthropologist conducted applied research involving the seating accommodation in defence equipment, flight, trains and cockpit by utilizing the anthropometric data of men and women.
The toolbar of cultural anthropology is best suited to design the obstacle ahead of us and prepare for expected events.
Anthropologists employed in government often take part in interdisciplinary projects where they work alongside other social scientists, environmentalists, educators and government officials.

References and Suggested Reading

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Chambers, E., 1985. Applied Anthropology: A Practical Guide. Englewoods Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Corner, B. & Gordon, C., 1996. Applied Physical Anthropology in the US Army, Natick: US Army Natick Research, Development, and Engineering Centre.
David Price. 2013. Anthropology and Militarism. Oxford Bibliographies.
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Said, Edward W. (1994). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
Sztankai Krisztián, 2014. Place and role of cultural anthropology in the Military. AARMS Vol. 13, No. 1 (2014) 113–116
Shell-Duncan, Bettina, and Ylva Hernlund (2000). Female “circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. p. 25.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C., 2008. Anthropology: A Global Perspective. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Van Willigen, J., 1993. Applied Anthropology: An Introduction. Washington: Bergin and Garvey Publishers.