25 Conservation of Primates

Dr. Vijeta Dr. Vijeta

Contents:

1. Introduction

2.  Major threats to Primate Species

3.  Primate conservation and Health

4.  Awareness on Primate Conservation

5.  Primate conservation and Futuristic Approach

6.  Conclusion

7.  Summary

Learning Objectives:

• To learn about Primate conservation
• To understand the major threats to Primate species
• To learn about Primate conservation, health and awareness
• To understand the futuristic approach for conservation of Primate

1. Introduction

Conservation is a subject much discussed today by scientific organizations, civic and philanthropic groups, countries, and governments throughout the world. At the request of the Global Environmental Facility for the United Nations Environment Program, some 1,500 scientists from around the world met in Jakarta, Indonesia & India to discuss the plight of the earth’s fauna and flora. Their conclusion: the animals and plants of the world are being destroyed at an “alarming rates.” This august group suggested the following reasons for the decline in species:

1. Increased population and economic development, which deplete biological resources.
2. Human failure to consider the consequences of actions that destroy habitat, exploit natural resources, and introduce nonnative species.
3. Failure of economic markets to recognize the value of maintaining the diversity of species.
4. Increased human migration, travel, and international trade.
5. The spread of water and air pollution.

Fig. 1. Global primate species richness, distributions, and the percentage of species threatened

and with declining populations*.

Source: Estrada etal, (2017): Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter

/ advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/1/e1600946

Geographic distribution of primate species. Numbers in red by each region refer to the number of extant species present. The bars at the bottom show the percent of species threatened with extinction and the percent of species with declining populations in each region. Percentage of threatened species and percentage of species with declining populations in each region from tables S1 to S4. Geographical range data of living, native species from the IUCN Red List (www.iucnredlist.org) are overlaid onto a 0.5° resolution equal-area grid. In cases in which a species’ range was split into multiple subspecies, these were merged to create a range map for the species. Mainland Africa includes small associated island.

Homo sapiens are the common factor in each of these statements. Our species today has about 5.7 billion individuals, with an estimated 7.8 billion expected by 2050 (Cohen 1995). We occupy all continents, most environments, and the majority of the earth’s latitudes. There is little doubt that we are the dominant species on earth today and that we possess the power to save or destroy the planet. As the well-known naturalist Jim Fowler recently wrote concerning the extinction of species, “We can no longer ignore their true value to Earth’s ecosystem, of which we are also a part” (Fowler 1995). Nonhuman primates comprise only a small fraction of the earth’s total species population, with approximately two hundred different species today, but fortunately there is a growing concern for their conservation in many countries. This is particularly true in those countries with tropical forests, where about 90 percent of the world’s wild primate populations live, because it is those areas that are undergoing the greatest destruction of primate habitats due to timber extraction and clearing forests for human occupation. As the forests disappear, so do the animals that live in them. One primatologist has so cogently pointed out, that “primates (and apes, in particular) are threatened because of the very characteristics that were originally the keys to their success” (Swindler, 2012).

2. Major threats to Primate Species

There are three major threats to wild primate species: habitat destruction, hunting for food and sport and live capture for export or local trade. Of course these vary from country to country, but one or more of them are operating wherever primates are having problems. Each of these conditions exacts its own toll on wild primate populations, but without doubt the most catastrophic is habitat destruction.

Forests are being removed for agriculture, lumber, industrial purposes, and fuel for cooking. Here again, the major impetus underlying the destruction of tropical forests is human population growth. Population growth in most tropical countries is much greater than in other countries, averaging over 3 percent per year. Brazil averages about 2.3 percent, Nigeria 3.3 percent, and Kenya over 4 percent, compared with 0. 7 percent and -0.2 percent for the United States and Germany (Swindler, 2012).

Figure-2: Factors driving primate population declines and possible mitigating approaches

Source: Estrada etal, (2017): Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter

/ advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/1/e1600946

Deforestation, for whatever reasons, causes the death of thousands of primates each year: “The survival of 58% of the species of living primates is being jeopardized, primarily by deforestation”. At the current rate of destruction, it is estimated that by the end of the twentieth century most of the tropical forests will have disappeared, to be replaced by subsistence farming, permanent farming, and large plantations. Land taken for these purposes is often overworked by continuous use, which leads to erosion and soil depletion. Much of the land becomes poor in production value as more and more is asked of it. The absence of the once lush ecosystem of the rainforest diminishes Earth’s ability to process carbon dioxide out of the air and changes the weather cycles for the whole world. The result is not only the loss of many primate species, and a real threat to ourselves, but the loss of thousands of other animals and plant species, many of which have been shown to have potential for us in health and medicine, not to mention the enrichment of our world by variety, diversity, and beauty (Wilson 1992).

Figure-3: Agricultural expansion and declines in forest cover for the period 1990–2010 in primate range regions*.

Source: Estrada etal, (2017): Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter

/   advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/1/e1600946

• A rapid expansion of agriculture in primate range regions has been paralleled by a sharp decline in forest cover in the 20-year period considered. Trends for each individual region are shown in fig. S6 (A to C). Data for Africa include Madagascar (source of raw data, FAOSTAT: faostat.fao.org/site/377/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=377#ancor. Consulted June 2016).

One of the largest tropical islands in the world, Madagascar, houses the world’s total population of wild lemurs, about half of the world’s chameleons, and some of the world’s largest earthworms. Some 2,000 years ago, however, humans came across the Mozambique Channel from Africa, and things began to happen. Giant birds, giant tortoises, and a lemur as large as a modern gorilla became extinct by the seventeenth century, but were humans solely responsible for these mega fauna extinctions? At a meeting held in 1995 at the Field Museum in Chicago, a group of scientists reviewed and discussed the newest evidence from many disciplines regarding these extinctions. The consensus was that both climatic shifts and agriculturists may have caused habitat loss, which, when added to non-sustainable rates of human hunting activities, probably were responsible for the extinctions. There is little doubt that many lemur species, as well as other animal groups, became extinct following human occupation of the island. Unfortunately, there is evidence that the preoccupation continues today. Lemurs are eaten in certain regions of the island, and the aye-aye, one of the world’s most endangered primates, is not only hunted and eaten in parts of Madagascar, but is also killed because it is thought to cause bad luck to the natives if it enters their villages. The distribution of the aye-aye is poorly known today, but an encouraging discovery has been made of a group of aye-aye, one of the most of northwestern Madagascar where they were previously unknown. The Duke Primate Center proudly reported the first birth of an aye-aye outside of Madagascar on April 5, 1992. It was a male weighing i 36 grams, when found, and it was doing quite well when the article was written. In r 99 another important conservation meeting was held at the University of Madagascar to determine which areas of the island should be considered highest priority for conservation efforts. The results of this meeting left no doubts “that Madagascar’s conservation policy has a new intellectual foundation”. It is hoped that other countries with native primate populations will consider such conservation meetings in the future; for it is only from such scientific conferences that important decisions emerge regarding whether endangered fauna and flora will survive to continue life on earth or perish forever. It is largely in human hands. Education is certainly imperative, and in the long run “conservation depends on in-country support and the development of sound governmental policy” (Yeager et al. 1995).

Hunting remains a problem in many countries where wild primates are considered an important food source, for example, in the Amazon, in parts of central and western Africa, in Southeast Asia, and to some extent, in parts of Madagascar. In western Africa there is a large trade in “bush meat” (monkey and ape meat), which is very popular and is sold in the larger cities. It is estimated that thousands of monkeys in Sierra Leone are killed yearly to supply meat to the Liberian market. There is evidence that logging increases the hunting of primates because it opens up roads into the forest for the hunters. Today, with the availability of modern firearms, primates in many countries are having a difficult time maintaining their breeding populations. Hunting for skins and other body parts, particularly skulls, for ornamentation such as rugs and coats is a profitable business in many parts of the world. More than thirty years ago the naturalist George Schaller reported that humans kill gorillas for “sport,” and unfortunately we are still the chief predator of the species. Killing the mountain gorillas for their skulls and hands in Rwanda and Zaire to sell to Europeans was reported by the late Dian Fossey as recently as 1983. Two more recent incidents occurred in 1994 and 1995. In 1994 the war in Rwanda claimed its first gorilla casualty when a silverback male stepped on a land mine near Lake Ngezi . Then in 1995 four mountain gorillas were killed by poachers in Uganda, probably in order to capture an infant.

Unfortunately, it generally happens that during the capture of live primates several animals are killed for every one that survives. It is estimated that there are approximately 600 mountain gorillas surviving in the wild at the present time in Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire. The western lowland gorilla is faring much better than the mountain gorilla. There were about 40,000 of them living mostly in Gabon in 1987 also the other subspecies of the western lowland gorifia, Gorilla gorilla graueri, lives in isolated pockets in eastern Zaire, with probably between 2,500 to 4,500 individuals.

3. Primate conservation and Health

Capturing wild primates for pets and biomedical research has been a considerable drain on certain wild primate species. Fortunately, the popularity of primates as pets has apparently waned since the 1970s in many countries, and international trade regulations have become more stringent. Primates are difficult to raise, tame, and breed. They also may carry diseases such as hepatitis, tuberculosis, and several virulent types of viruses (e.g., the Ebola virus). What may be a cuddly little monkey frequently becomes a large, dangerous adult. It should also be added that primates do not make good pets for another reason. As we have seen, primates are social animals who prefer members of their own species to humans. Additionally, they all have sharp teeth, which they use with only slight provocation. Fortunately the pet trade in primates seems to be curtailed in the United States at the present time, but it continues to flourish in many other countries. There are presently ongoing task forces made up of researchers, veterinarians, and other concerned individuals to reduce the incidence of primates kept as pets. Today, the majority of primates used in biomedical research in the United States are raised in breeding colonies. Consequently there is less demand for importing primates from the wild. The use, of captive-bred rather than imported primates benefits both laboratory research and natural populations of primates. The National Institutes of Health has chartered and regulated several Primate Centers within the United States that contribute to a wide range of studies and research, including breeding primates for research. Unfortunately, this is not true for all countries that still import primates for research, although international rules have restricted the trafficking in primates over the last couple of decades. India, for example, has not exported rhesus monkeys for years, and with the drafting of the Convention of Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna in 1973, England and several European countries have agreed to ban commercial trade in endangered species (Swindler, 2012).

We have introduced the topic of disease transmission between humans and nonhuman primates living in natural habitats as a conservation concern. The prevention of disease transmission is of paramount importance, particularly for the great apes, as they are most susceptible. When discussing disease outbreaks, it is important to consider the potential long-term effects on a given population. For example, the respiratory disease that spread through Gombe’s Mitumba community in 1996 apparently had devastating effects. At the time of the outbreak, the population census was estimated at whether the diseases in question originated from humans, a significant decline of a community of endangered apes living in a protected area is cause for great concern (Wallis & Lee, 1999).

4. Awareness on Primate Conservation

In recent years many of the large zoos in the world have sponsored symposia and conferences on conservation which have resulted in many important publications. Also, zoos, scientific societies, and many private and federal funding organizations have provided funds for naturalistic field studies of primates that have contributed immensely to our knowledge of the myriad problems involved in primate conservation. The American Society of Primatologists, the premier organization in the United States for primate scientists, supports several conservation programs with donated funds. In addition, the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, the National Geographic Society, the African Wildlife Foundation, and the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation support conservation. One would be remiss not to mention the pioneering studies of the three great apes in their natural habitats by three women scientists. Jane Good all began her research on the chimpanzee in the early 1960s and continues today, nearly four decades later. Dian Fossey and Birute Galdikas started their investigations of the mountain gorilla and orangutan in the early 1970s. Dr. Galdikas continues to visit her site, Tanjun Putny Reserve in Indonesia, on a regular basis (Crockett, personal communication). Unfortunately, Dr. Fossey was murdered in her cabin at the Karisoke Research Center in Rwanda in 1985. All three have expressed deep concern for primate conservation, and their publications and public lectures through the years have brought a better understanding and appreciation of the great apes and their endangered plight to the general public. Some believe that the mountain gorilla would not have survived to the present day without the tireless efforts of Dian Fossey to save these magnificent creatures (Swindler, 2012).

5. Primate conservation and Futuristic Approach

Future conservation strategies must consider the local economic situation. Forest conservation is not a high economic priority for most developing countries, yet deforestation, as discussed above, is one of the major reasons for the loss of primate species. Creating large national parks and wildlife reserves is fine, but how many countries can sustain these economically? Tanzania has set aside about 9 percent of its land for wildlife sanctuaries, which is equivalent to the states of Washington, Oregon, and California. People must be made more aware of their relationship with the natural world and how to coexist with it in multiuse areas. Such areas can be used, but not used up. It is also important that field workers be aware of the sensitivities and cultural mores of the local people and not appear as neocolonialists or missionaries spreading their own brand of “truth” (Yeager et al. 1995).

The principle reference work on endangered species is the Red Data Book, produced by the Conservation Monitoring Centre of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in Cambridge, England. In addition, excellent discussions of the serious emergency regarding primate survival in the wilderness can be found in the other books listed and many articles written in primatology, anthropology and zoology journals about the plights of specific primate species that are available in our university and public libraries.

There are some 182 species of nonhuman primates living today. Of these, about 128 species are monkeys, of which 77 are Old World monkeys and 51 are New World primates. Prosimians comprise about 41 species, while apes are usually grouped into 13 species (Kavanagh1984). In 1983 it was estimated that about one-third of these species were on the endangered species list (Wolfheim 1983).

Figure-4: World’s most Endangered primates

Source:http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21474933/ns/world_news-world_environment/t/experts-list most-

endangered-primates

It is quite apparent that nonhuman primates depend on the tropical forests for their very, lives. Most nonhuman primate species are arboreal creatures living in tropical rain forests and are dependent upon the forest and its products for their various life styles. Some species are terrestrial, in that they forage on the ground during the day, but even they return to the trees at night for protection. According to Richard (1985), the majority of nonhuman primates spend from 40 percent to 80 percent of their feeding time eating fruit, leaves, seeds, herbs, insects, gums, and saps. It is both clear and disturbing that destruction of these habitats is eliminating thousands of primate species each year. Unfortunately, one other primate is responsible for most of this deforestation and that is Homo sapiens (Swindler, 2012).

As conservationists, we must pay more attention to the health policy and procedures in our own backyard. We work hard to protect endangered or threatened species through reducing deforestation and poaching. Yet, in the end, what good is a pristine forest if the inhabitants are at risk of acquiring diseases introduced by humans? In addition to traditional measures to protect forests, wildlife conservation must include safeguarding the inhabitants from introduced disease (Wallis & Lee, 1999).

Figure-5: Phylogenetic signal as a predictor of extinction risk in the world’s primates*.

Source: Source: Estrada etal, (2017): Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why

primates matter / advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/1/e1600946

• Distribution of threat values (IUCN Red List categories) for 340 primate species. Representative genera labeled. After taxonomic updates, our working phylogeny included 350 of the 367 species considered in the molecular supertree (73), of which 340 are not Data Deficient. Closely related species are more likely to have the same threat status than species taken randomly from the phylogeny [D = 0.31; P (D < 1) < 0.001], supporting a strong phylogenetic signal (see Supplementary Text for details of methodology). Data for Africa include Madagascar. IUCN Red List Categories: CR (Critically Endangered), EN (Endangered), VU (Vulnerable), NT (Near Threatened), and LC (Least Concern).

6. Conclusion

It is obvious that many primates are endangered by human actions and that great effort needs to be placed in conserving the forests they inhabit. However, we believe that there is reason to be optimistic as the rate of forest loss is declining, a great deal is now known about primate diseases, and programs to decrease the bush meat industry are being successfully implemented. This optimism should not make us reduce our efforts; rather this knowledge of the threats offers great opportunities for scientists to make significant contributions to primate conservation. In many respects, the research done over the last few decades has laid out very clear objectives that can be met to promote primate conservation; for example, by offering people sustainable alternatives to the bush meat trade, reducing deforestation and promoting reforestation, developing parks, and making protocols for reducing the risk of disease transmission between people and primates, and reducing carbon emissions to curb climate change. Certainly there are many questions that now need to be addressed to make primate conservation a reality. These include: What will direct depopulated areas into a process of ecological recovery or into plantation economies? How can conservation gains be made from declining rural populations in a socially responsible way? What are effective measures to reduce the transmission of diseases among people and non-human primates? How is it possible to reduce the national and international trade in bushmeat? And, how will climate change impact specific regions and primate species? All of these questions provide the foundation upon which to build research programs that will make a difference and provide the information needed to construct informed conservation/management plans (Chapman, & Gogarten, 2012).

7. Summary

Homo sapiens species today has about 5.7 billion individuals, with an estimated 7.8 billion expected by 2050. Nonhuman primates comprise only a small fraction of the earth’s total species population, with approximately two hundred different species today, but fortunately there is a growing concern for their conservation in many countries. This is particularly true in those countries with tropical forests, where about 90 percent of the world’s wild primate populations live, because it is those areas that are undergoing the greatest destruction of primate habitats due to timber extraction and clearing forests for human occupation. There are three major threats to wild primate species: habitat destruction, hunting for food and sport and live capture for export or local trade. Primates are difficult to raise, tame, and breed. They also may carry diseases such as hepatitis, tuberculosis, and several virulent types of viruses. In recent years many of the large zoos in the world have sponsored symposia and conferences on conservation which have resulted in many important publications. Also, zoos, scientific societies, and many private and federal funding organizations have provided funds for naturalistic field studies of primates that have contributed immensely to our knowledge of the myriad problems involved in primate conservation. Future conservation strategies must consider the local economic situation. Forest conservation must be a high economic priority. Creating large national parks and wildlife reserves and people must be made more aware of their relationship with the natural world and how to coexist with it in multiuse areas. As conservationists, we must pay more attention to the health policy and procedures in our own backyard & work hard to protect endangered or threatened species through reducing deforestation and poaching.

 
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References

• Chapman, C. A., & Gogarten, J. F. (2012). Primate conservation: is the cup half empty or half full. Nature Education Knowledge, 4(7).
• Swindler, D. R. (1976). Dentition of living primates. Academic Press.
• Swindler, D. R. (2012). Introduction to the Primates. University of Washington Press.
• Wolfheim, J. H. (1983). Primates of the world: distribution, abundance and conservation. Psychology Press.
• Yeager, C. P. (1995). Does intraspecific variation in social systems explain reported differences in the social structure of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus)? Primates, 36(4), 575-582.
• Wallis, J., & Lee, D. R. (2000). Prevention of disease transmission in primate conservation. Annals-New York Academy Of Sciences, 916, 691-694.
• Cohen, J. E. (1995). Population growth and earth’s human carrying capacity. Science, 269(5222), 341.
• Cheverud, J. M., Wilson, P., & Dittus, W. P. (1992). Primate population studies at Polonnaruwa. III. Somatometric growth in a natural population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica). Journal of Human Evolution, 23(1), 51-77.
• Wallis, J., & Lee, D. R. (1999). Primate conservation: the prevention of disease transmission. International Journal of Primatology, 20(6), 803-826.