16 Women’s participation in development programs

Dr. Uma

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Participation
4. Significance of Participation in Development Programmes: Change of perspectives from Welfare to right based in development
5. Five Year Plans of Government of India
6. Summary

Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you would be able to:

•  identify the significance of women’s participation in programmes;
•  trace the efforts at international level to integrate women’s needs in programmes;
•  know the efforts taken by the Indian government in five year plans to encourage women to participate in programmes; and
•  identify few government of India programmes with significant women’s participation.

1. Introduction

Women account for 586.47 million in absolute numbers and represent 48.46 per cent of the total population of the country according to the 2011 census. The value of participation of entire community especially women in programmes was realized after considering the suggestions made by many studies. Before that, the top down approach used for programme implementation failed to integrate local needs. Alternatively, the scholars and practitioners conceived and developed bottom up approach in planning and implementation of programmes. The development of research methods/techniques like participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)/ Participatory Learning and Planning (PLA) to reinforce bottom up approach took definite turn to recognize the significance of participation of women and marginalized sections in the development programmes. Along with that, feminist scholars contributed for the design and development of various approaches and theories to reflect the needs of the women and their participation in programmes. The Indian government adopted welfare approach in the first to fifth five year plans. The policies and programmes towards women reflected the same. Later it shifted to development oriented approach towards women. The eleventh and current twelfth five year plans recognized women as change agents. In this Unit, we are going to look into participation, women’s participation, efforts at national and international level to encourage women to participate in programmes and few government of India’s programmes as examples. Let us start with knowing participation.

2. Participation

The concept of participation evolved after expanding development agenda beyond the technical area of planning and including institutional design to ensure participation of stakeholders. Participation believes in transforming the process of programme implementation in a meaningful way by providing opportunities to the community to contribute for the programmes. Theories of strong democracy advocates participation in design, development and implementation of programmes. It further explained that the participation of community in a democratic way may complement for the formation of interest groups or collectives. The active participation of interest groups / collectives would bring the needs of the citizens in the programmes. It was also noted that participation as collective affairs valued because, through such activity, people define themselves as citizens and become educated about collective problems and democratic principles (Mansbridge, 1980; Morrell, 1999). Effective participation needs groups/collectives to bring shared decision making in the programmes.

There are three levels of participation seen in earlier studies. In the first level, administrative bodies consult community members to learn from their knowledge, perceptions, experiences and ideas. In the second level, community members actively participate and discuss development issues and give suggestions to the successful implementation of plans and programmes. The third and highest level of participation is ‘active participation’ involving in shared decision making and self-determination. In this process community members actively participate and are partly responsible for the outcomes. The active participation means effective, efficient and equitable and engendered participation where women’s participation was ensured and needs of the both men and women would reflect in programmes.

According to Chambers, for instance, “PRA, as a key instrument in challenging institutionally produced ignorance of development professional ‘uppers’ which not only denies the realities of ‘lowers’ but imposes its own uniform, simplifies (and wrong) realities on them. The essence of PRA changes and reversals- of roles, behaviour, relationship and learning. Outsiders do not dominate and lecture; they facilitate, sit down, listen and learn…they do not transfer technology; they share methods which local people can use for their own appraisal, analysis, planning action, monitoring and evaluation” (Chambers 1997:103). PRA/PLA was a technique to contribute for the empowerment of the poorest of the poor especially marginalized like women and it also encourages their participation in programmes. Participation would recognize realities in local people and accepts. Therefore, participation defined by Rahneme (1992) as “greater productivity at lower cost, efficient mechanisms for service delivery or reduced recurrent and maintenance cost”. At the same time, experts opined that the production of local knowledge strongly shaped by local gender relations. Now we get clarity in participation. The next section gives you changing perspectives of development from welfare to rights based approach and how the significance of participation of women evolved over period.

3. Significance of Participation in Development Programmes: Change of perspectives from Welfare to right based in development

Feminists Scholars have been constructing theories and frameworks to explain differences persisting among human beings. In the 19th century, women movements started as a movement for suffrage. Later, by looking at the deep rooted gender differences, individuals and organizations have worked together to bring the notice of the women’s status and position at the international and national level. At the international level, the United Nations has been contributing a major share to bring universal notice of the status and the condition of women. It has also facilitated feminist scholars and practitioners to develop frameworks to incorporate women issues in the development agenda.

At the same time, the Scientific and Industrial advancement have progressed notably in the developed nations in the 20th centuries. The developed nations wanted to transfer its scientific and industrial progress and its benefits to the developing, underdeveloped and newly formed independent nations since 1945 through foreign aid. They provided aid in the form of food and military assistance. During that period, welfare approach dominated mainly. It reflected in the first to fifth five plans of India and women were considered as recipient of welfare measures and they did not participate much in programmes.

The United Nations (UN), in the first development decade in the year 1960s emphasized economic growth and trickle down approach. It assumed that the benefits of economic development reach all especially women and marginalized through trickle down approach. This was emphasized in modernization theory as well. The developed nations followed the essence of modernization theory. It believed that industrialization and economic development was part of the modernization theory that would bring positive socio, political and economic changes. It implicitly assumed that the benefits of the economic development and industrialization trickle down to all. But, the feminist scholar like Esther Boserup challenged the modernization theory and trickle down approach through her study on the African agriculture pattern. According to her path breaking work on ‘Women’s Role in Economic Development’, she questioned existing African agriculture system. She brought to the notice that the women in agriculture activities in Africa engaged mostly in subsistence farming. Men occupy fertile land to cultivate cash crops. The pattern of agriculture activities in Africa showed that the benefits of modernization in agriculture did not translate women’s status. This has led feminists to question modernization theory and provided way for the emergence of Women in Development (WID) approach. The emergence of WID in 1970s was a starting point for the feminists to engage in development discourse and practice. In the meantime, feminists in the United States lobbied to integrate women issues into the policy of the government, especially in the USAID policy. Their constant efforts resulted in bringing a new amendment called the Percy Amendment in the year 1973. This paved the way for integrating gender sensitive social impact studies in all development projects. The feminists also started using the term WID which comes under liberal feminism.

In the year 1970, the United Nations reviewed the results of the first development decade of the 1960s. Based on the review, various approaches to women development were found. The review concluded that both men and women must be lifted from poverty and both men and women must benefit from development efforts. The first international conference in Mexico City was organized to mark the celebration of the International Women’s Year in 1975 declared by UN. Subsequently the United Nations organized another three international conferences for women in 1980, 1985 and 1995 in Copenhagen, Nairobi and Beijing.

According to WID exponents, the modernization process and economic development have benefitted men more than women. They advocated that the development projects must recognize women’s role in production and they must provide access to resources and new employment opportunities to women. WID further advocated that the capitalist mode of activities would emancipate women provided if women incorporated in the public ‘‘productive’’ sphere, specifically by establishing ways to access cash economy. WID also stressed that efficient and effective development was possible only if women integrated into development processes as active agents.

The first decade of WID (1975–1985) rallied behind governments and international organizations to allocate funds for the WID projects. In the next section you will understand that the government of India too followed WID approach. WID projects concentrated on the economic activities of the women by enhancing their skills by way of involving them in income-generating projects. It clearly stated that income generating activities for women would raise household incomes and improve their status in their homes. Apart from income generating activities, women were given education on the aspects of family planning, health, nutrition and child health. More than looking into gender relations, patriarchy and socialization process, WID simply considered women’s deprivation as logistical problem rather than bringing fundamental shift in gender relations and ideology (Tinker, 1990). As is mentioned in the next section, first to fifth five year plans followed welfare model and women considered as recipient of welfare measures. With the emergence of WID approach at international level, Indian government developed few programmes like Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) to make women to access credits for economic activities. It was reflected in its sixth five year plan of government of India.

Alternative to WID approach, 1980s Women and Development (WAD) approach emerged. WAD approach criticized earlier WID approach and stated that economic integration like creating income generating activities did not translate women’s life. The Socialist and Marxist feminists argued that relations of capital were the main subjugation on women. So WAD approach stressed that patriarchy and capital are the main reasons for the lack of option for the women. WID and WAD approach did not translate expected changes in the lives of women and statistics and studies proved that women lacked behind men in all sectors. By analyzing the gaps in both approaches and figuring out the reasons for women’s position in all sectors, new framework/approach emerged. It was called Gender and Development (GAD) approach.

The Current Gender and Development (GAD) approach was the combination of WID and WAD. It questioned the existing gender relations. Even though GAD acknowledges capitalist mode of production, it tried to bring the improvement in the lives of women by addressing gender inequalities. To do that, GAD wanted to bring systemic changes. By developing broader frameworks, GAD wanted to address women’s concern in all areas like legal, customary, and labour market. It also wanted to address the constraints women face for mobility and economic participation. GAD approach also realized that these constraints were rooted in long-standing gender ideologies and asymmetrical gender relations. GAD researchers systematically examined all sectors. GAD approach developed in the neo-liberal economic scenario. According to the GAD exponents, neo-liberal economic policies constrained women’s participation in market. So, it insisted that national governments must formulate policies of affirmative action and intervene in all areas and sectors to ensure women’s participation.

GAD has emerged from the grassroots organizational experiences and writings of third world feminists and has been most clearly articulated by a group called the Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) and the experiences and analysis of western socialist feminists interested in the development issues. According to GAD approach men and women perform different roles in society. Due to role differentiation, the needs were also different. Identifying women’s needs and incorporating same in the policies, programmes were the first step to reflect women’s concerns. GAD exponents have developed gender analysis framework and other tools to incorporate women’s needs in the policies and programmes. Gender Mainstreaming, Gender Analysis Frameworks and Tools and Affirmative Policies and Programmes have ensured women’s participation in programmes and their needs reflected in the policies.

By looking at the International efforts to bring women issues forefront, India too committed to implement four international women’s conferences/conventions. Being signatory of all international conventions/conferences, Government of India policy reflected the outcomes of international efforts. As part of India’s commitment, it agreed to promote gender equality.

4. 4. Five year plans of Government of India

The Planning Commission (the present Niti Aayog) was set up in March, 1950 by a resolution of the Government of India. The Niti Aayog (Planning Commission) assesses and augments all types of existing resources (physical, financial, human resources and social capital) to exploit the same in an efficient manner to create opportunities for all. To do the same, it has created five year plans since 1951. The goals of five year plans are growth, modernization, self-reliance and equity. The first to fifth five year plans (1951-79) did not specifically target or mention women development policies. It has concentrated on education, rural development, agriculture, village industries and handicrafts. During that period, women were considered as the recipient of welfare programmes and government developed many welfare schemes/programmes to the women. The roles of the women in government programmes were minimal in the first to fifth five year plans. Community Development Programmes (CDP), which was implemented in the first five year plan emphasized the extension activities and has given priority to health and nutrition. In that, women became extension workers as mukhiya sevikas and gram sevikas and mahila samajans to distribute government welfare programmes and organized training. The Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) and Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974) were also considered women as recipient of welfare programmes like first five year plan.

There was a shift in approach to women’s development in the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79). During that period, Government of India published Towards Equality Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India 1974. The report also revealed that the large numbers of women in India were still not getting rights guaranteed in the Constitution. At the International level, United Nations (UN) celebrated International Women’s Year 1975. Both national and international efforts to bring women’s needs in the planning, policy making and programmes reflected in the fifth five year plan. So, there was a shift in the approach to women’s development as a part of social welfare. The new approach aimed at a proper integration of welfare and development services. Yet, no initiative or policy statements favoring women were presented in the plan. The sixth five year plan (1981-1985) had a separate chapter as women and development. It has concentrated on health, education and employment of women. By considering Towards Equality Report of the committee on the status of women in India 1974 and research studies on women, the sixth plan clearly spelt that women were lagging behind in all sectors and government needs to take appropriate measures to address the same. At the same time, First International Women’s Conference in Mexico 1975 and United Nations Decade for Women (1976- 1985) also underlined the need to improve educational and employment opportunities for women and bring equality in all spheres. The emergence of WID movement during that period demanded social justice and equality for women. The previous section in this Unit elaborately dealt with the efforts at international level. Learners must note that UN and feminist movements contributed extensively to bring note of the women’s status. They also organized national and international conventions to pressurize national governments to include women’s needs in the policies and programmes. The significance of seventh five year plan (1987-1992) was to bring beneficiary oriented programmes. Prime Minister’s office identified 27 beneficiary-oriented programmes. The Department of Women and Child Development became nodal department for the same. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) has given emphasis on decentralization of planning and ensuring participation of all in development programmes. The detailed significance participation especially women’s participation was discussed in earlier section of this module. Another significant emphasis in the Seventh Five Year plan was to remove poverty and reduction in income disparities. It has also given priority to employment generation and self sufficiency in food production to ensure higher level of food consumption.

The eighth five year plan (1992-97) strategized to develop special programmes to complement general programmes to ensure that the benefits reach women. 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA) of India came into force in the year 1993. It ensured 33.3percent reservation for women in three tiers of Panchayat structures. Subsequently State Governments made necessary amendments in their panchayat acts to ensure the implementation of government programmes in rural and urban areas through the elected local bodies. Due to reservation for women in local bodies, the participation of women in the implementation of programmes were ensured.

Box 1: People Plan Campaign in Kerala

Enactment of 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts and subsequent State Panchayat acts in Kerala paved the way for the development of people’s plan campaign. After formulating necessary plans with the active support of people, State decided to spend 40% of its earmarked plan budget through local bodies at the village, block and district levels. In this exercise, State of Kerala assessed people’s needs through meetings of the gram sabhas with the village panchayat to make plan, coordinated and vetted at the block level and approved at the district level by a district planning committee constituted to assist the panchayats. This was the ‘People’s Campaign for Ninth Plan’, popularly known as ‘People’s Planning’ (Janakeeya Aasoothranam). The State Planning Board acted as advisory body as well as implementing agency for activities under ‘People are Planning’. The People’s Plan Campaign was chalked out as different phase of activities. All these activities, Gram Panchayat ensured the participation of women. Ref: Gibson, Christopher 2012. Making Redistributive Direct Democracy Matter: Development and Women’s Participation in the Gram Sabhas of Kerala. India American Sociological Review 77(3) 409–434 American Sociological Association. DOI: 10.1177/0003122412442883 http://asr.sagepub.com

Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA) of Government of India enacted in 1996 to cover the “Scheduled areas” which were not covered in the 73rd and 74th CAA of India. This act too ensured the participation of community in the affairs of the government and the implementation of programmes. The poverty alleviation programmes like Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY), Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) were implemented during this period. 30-40 percent of the beneficiaries in the above said programmes reserved for women. The objectives of the DWCRA were to bring change in the socio economic status of poor women in rural areas by facilitating them to establish income generating activities. The Programme also ensured the improvement in accessing services like health, education nutrition and safe drinking water. There were about 1.36 lakh women’s Self Help Groups (SHGs) formed during the plan period.

The objective of ninth five year plan (1997-2002) was to empower women as the agents of social change and development. It has devised strategies like creating enabling environment for women at both public and private areas. The plan decided to adopt “National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2000”. It has also decided to take steps to ensure reservation of one third of seats for women in parliament and state assemblies. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) took important forward step by formulating Women’s Component Plan. It has ensured that not less than 30 percent of funds/benefits flow to women from other developmental sectors.

The Mahila Samakhya scheme was launched in 1989 to translate the goals of the National Policy on Education into a concrete programme for education and empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly women in socially and economically marginalized groups. The programme enabled women’s collectives to address the larger socio-cultural issues that have traditionally inhibited the participation of women and girls in the education system. Through its strategy of building grassroots women’s organizations, the programme has created a forum and environment for women’s education at the community level besides managing 866 Non Formal Education Centres and around 1,000 Early Childhood-Care Education Centres by the end of the Ninth Plan.

The Tenth Five year Plan (2002-2007) continued its previous strategies and empowering women as agents of social change and development. During this period, government took a sector- specific 3-fold strategy to empower women based on the National Policy for Empowerment of Women. This includes creating affirmative policies and programmes and creating enabling environment to access all basic services to realize their full potential. Apart from this, the plan took steps ensure for women’s economic empowerment and gender justice.

The 11th five year plan (2007-2012) recognized that that women and children were not homogenous categories. This was significant policy shift in India. The Plan stated that women and children were belong to diverse castes, classes, communities, economic groups, and were located within a range of geographic and development zones. In those categories, some were more vulnerable than others. Mapping the vulnerable category and addressing the specific needs of the more deprived sections was essential components in plan. So, the plan undertook special targeted interventions to address and cater the needs of vulnerable groups. There were shift in approach of the government in the eleventh plan period. Women were recognized not just as equal citizens but as agents of economic and social growth. The plan decided to take multi-pronged strategy to ensure gender equity. For that, it has decided to give basic entitlements, addressing the realities of globalization and its impact on women by prioritizing economic empowerment, ensuring an environment free from all forms of violence against women (VAW), ensuring the participation and adequate representation of women at the highest policy levels, particularly in Parliament and State assemblies and strengthening existing institutional mechanisms and create new ones for gender mainstreaming and effective policy implementation. The 11th five year plan laid down monitorable targets. Gender Budgeting Cells were set up in 52 Central ministries/departments to review public expenditure, collect gender disaggregated data, and conduct gender-based impact analysis. Under Women Component Plan (WCP), efforts were made to ensure that not less than 30% of funds/benefits under various schemes of all ministries/departments were earmarked for women. The performance however has been far from satisfactory.

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of India was passed in 2005 and the government formulated Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Programme/Scheme (MGNREGS). MGSNRES is significant scheme because it has incorporated number of important aspects like household based employment, guaranteed wage employment for 100 days in a financial year for every below poverty household (BPL) household whose adult member volunteered to manual unskilled.

work, 33.3 percent reservation for women in employment, providing autonomy to the gramsabha and panchayats planning, executing and monitoring of work, ensuring 33.3 percent attendance in gramsabha meeting for the finalization of work,

The Current 12th five year plan (2012- 2017) is giving priority in areas of economic empowerment, creating social and physical infrastructure, enactment of enabling legislations, ensuring women’s participation in governance, ensuring inclusiveness of all categories of vulnerable women, engendering national policies/programmes and mainstreaming gender through Gender Budgeting.

Summary

The significance of women’s participation to bring overall development and trace the government of India efforts to formulate policies and programmes to reflect women’s concerns and needs for ensuring women’s participation in programmes with the examples were discussed. Before we discussed Indian situation, the efforts taken at international level to ensure women’s participation in programmes by individuals and institutions were presented. Other important points noted are mentioned below:

Significance of Participation in Programmes Definition for Participation

PRA/PLA

Contribution of Feminists Scholars and United Nations

Five year plans and its contribution to include women’s concerns and needs in Plans Ensuring women’s Participation in Programmes in India

Poverty eradication Programmes

73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments Act and Panchayts Extension Scheduled Areas Act

Women’s Component Plan

Mahila Samakhya

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme

People’s Plan Campaign in Kerala