34 Review of Data Collection Methods

Ms. Aisha Jabeen

Contents:

1. Introduction
2. What is Anthropological Data?
3. Types of Data
4. Data collection methods Summary

Learning Outcomes:

After having studies this module you will be able to:

•  Talk about anthropological data;
•  Understand about different types of anthropological data; and
•  Discuss various data collection methods.

1. Introduction

As we know, the field of anthropology is concerned with the exploration of the complexity of human interactions; as a research discipline, anthropology combines humanist and social science strategies. The process of collection of in depth data and how such data of human culture and behaviour is collected is what sets anthropology apart from other disciplines. Anthropologists immerse themselves in the rich data, which is largely qualitative, and try to find emerging themes providing valuable insights.

Research in anthropology can be carried out through various approaches, like comparative, cross-cultural, historical or ethnographic. Irrespective of the approach used the success of the research depends upon the data gathered for it. Needless to say that data collection during the study needs to be clear and correct.

2. What is Anthropological Data?

Data is a basic unit of research. It refers to any distinct pieces of information collected for research purposes in raw or unorganized form. It can be in the form of numbers or symbols and may represent ideas or conditions.

If a researcher fails to collect accurate and appropriate data the findings of the study are bound to be misleading, and the research will become questionable. To overcome such difficulties, a researcher should include appropriate methods of data collection. Before we move on to data collection methods let us first have a look at the types of data that a researcher can come across during data collection.

3. Types of Data

Depending upon the source of the data, they can be of two types:

Primary data-

Primary data is collected by the researcher directly from the field or subjects of the research.

It is the first hand information gathered by the researcher himself or herself.

Secondary data-

The data that is collected by someone other than the researcher is called secondary data. The second hand source could be a person or an agency.

Depending upon the nature of data, they can be of two types:

Quantitative data-

When the data is expressed in the form of numbers like cost of goods, or population numbers etc., it is called quantitative data. This data is analysed using statistical methods. The researches, such as survey, census etc., that use quantitative data as the sole means of data are called quantitative researches.

Qualitative data-

When the data is expressed in the form of words like customs, rituals, description of material or non-material culture etc., it is called qualitative data. This data is analysed through qualitative methods. Researches that use such data, as in case studies, are called qualitative researches.

It is not uncommon in anthropology to find researches that use both qualitative and quantitative data, and are called qualitative-quantitative mix research.

4. Data Collection Methods

Let us now discuss the common anthropological data collection methods. There are generally five types of methods that are used:

1. Observation
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Schedules
5. Textual or Content Analysis

Observation

Observations form a crucial part of anthropological research. Observation can be defined as the precise viewing and recording of phenomenon as occurring in nature. Observation is of two types:

1. Participant observation

Participant observation is the one in which the researcher participates actively with the group under investigation. The researcher in some cases may conceal one’s identity (total participant observation) while in other cases the identity of the researcher is revealed to the group (quasi-participant observation).

In participant observation the observer is a part of the social events s/he is observing and generally lives and participates in the everyday life of the group as a full-fledged member. The observer ensures that the normal life of the group is not disturbed. The observer observes the behavior of the members of the community, and tries to understand the interactions and relationships between them. The researcher carries out a holistic study of the social group or unit.

The observer needs to take certain precautions as well such as acting in a responsible manner, seeking no special status, try to maintain as much objectivity as possible in spite of being in close proximity of the observed group. The skills and expertise of the observer are of utmost importance in the success of participant observations.

2. Non-participant Observation

Non-participant observation is the one in which the observer does not actively participate in the activities of the group and observes the social unit as an outsider. The identity of the observer can be hidden or revealed as per the circumstances; however the non-participant observer remains totally passive and detached from the group under study.

Non-participant observation gives an opportunity of enhanced objectivity to the observer as being at a distance from the community giving him or her considerable space for viewing and evaluation of the interactions of the group in a better way.

However the shortcoming of non-participant observation is that the group members might consider the researcher as a stranger and may not reveal their true attitudes, feelings etc. to him or her.

QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is considered to be the main technique of data collection in the survey method. It is an instrument that helps a researcher obtain information about personal life, feelings, and expectations etc. of the respondent. A questionnaire consists of a set of questions in a particular form and order and the respondent is expected to fill up the form him/herself.

Types of Questions in a Questionnaire

There are two types of questions generally included in a questionnaire. They are open-ended and closed-ended questions.

Open-ended Questions

These questions are not followed by any specific answer. The respondent is free to write any response he or she wants. Example: Which method do you think helps develop reflective teachers in the best way?

Closed-ended Questions

These questions are followed by specific answers and the respondents are expected to choose any one of the answers.

Example: Tick any one. Scientists are always objective and they never let their personal opinions affect their research in anyway

• Strongly Agree
•  Agree
• Neutral
•  Disagree
• Strongly Disagree

Closed ended questions can also be in the form of yes and no.

A researcher may develop a questionnaire with either of the two types of the questions or a mixture of both.

Types of Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured, unstructured, or pictorial.

– Structured questionnaires are those where the questions are prepared in advance and the wordings and order of the questions remain the same irrespective of the respondents.

– Unstructured questionnaires are those where questions are modified and adjusted according to the need of the situation with the aim to collect as much information as possible.

– Semi-structured questionnaires are those where there is a mixture of structured and unstructured questions.

– Pictorial questionnaire are those where the alternatives to the questions are in the form of pictures.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

The development of a good questionnaire is a tough task. The questionnaire should be self-explanatory. The print and layout should be good. The items should be analytical, clear, short and understandable. Questions that are threatening or embarrassing should be avoided. The questions should be according the respondents level. Method of administration and the sample for the respondents should be selected thoughtfully.

Limitations of a Questionnaire

The use of questionnaire also has some drawbacks. It is not possible to collect information of less educated or illiterate people. The response rate may be low leading to a limited amount of data for analysis. Misinterpretation of questions is also possible in the absence of the researcher him/herself. The reliability of a questionnaire is of great importance for the quality of data collected.

Interview

An interview can be defined as a conversation with a purpose. It is a process of social interaction. Interview is a useful procedure for collecting data through a face-to-face interaction between the researcher (or the interviewer) and the interviewee. Just as in the case of the questionnaire, the interviewer asks certain questions; but unlike in questionnaire, in the interview there is a space for developing new questions to probe a matter further.

An interview is a direct method of data collection. However it is also a very time taking one. It is done usually when the sample is less or to find out about information that could not be collected from the questionnaire or on individuals selected after the use of a questionnaire to understand the responses in-depth. An interview can be used for all segments of population. It is used to study the events that are not open to observation such as past events. Interview provides an interesting way to find out the reactions of the individuals in different situations.

Types of Interview

Interviews are categorized into two types based on the people involved.

1. Individual Interview

An interview done with a single person to get information or find out their views and opinions is called a personal interview or individual interview. Individual interviews use open-ended questions and aim to apprehend the mental and experiential world of the interviewee. Participants in such an interview are able to tell their stories uninterrupted, in a coherent manner and without any peer-pressure. The interview is generally semi-structured to provide for flexibility for follow-up questions and also for changes according to situation.

2. Group Interview (Focus Group Interview)

An interview done with a group of people is called a group interview. This type of interview is good for studying a full range of relevant ideas in a previously unknown or little known domain. It is also useful when data collection will be better through a group discussion than an individual interview. For instance, adolescents share similar experiences more openly in the presence of peers as against the presence of only an adult (interviewer). Focus groups are also used to study the interaction among the group members. For instance, how children talk among themselves, what are the colloquial ways in which group members speak with one another.

It is important that the focus group interview is carried out by a person who is good at facilitating open and dynamic dialogues within a group. The presence of an observer who either writes or records what goes on is significant. The group should not have more than 6-12 individuals.

On the basis of nature of questions asked in an interview, they are of two types.

1. Structured Interviews

Interviews where the questions are pre-determined, and the nature of questions, sequence, wordings, etc. are standardized are called structured interviews. The questions are mostly closed-ended. Since the emphasis is put on the specificity of form these interviews are also called Formal Interviews. These interviews are easy to administer and provide greater uniformity and precision.

2. Unstructured Interviews

Interviews where flexibility is provided in the number and order of questions are called unstructured interviews. The aim of the interview is to collect maximum information. There is freedom to adjust the questions according to the level of the respondents and the situation at hand. Since these interviews do not insist on a particular form, they are also called Informal Interviews.

It is important to note that whatever interview-type the researcher may choose he or she needs to bear in mind that rapport building with the participants should always precede the interview.

Schedule

A schedule is a set of questions that are asked by the researcher and filled-in by themselves. Unlike a questionnaire, a schedule provides an opportunity for the researcher to build a rapport with the respondents before asking them questions. Generally, researchers talk about schedule with reference to an interview schedule or observation schedule; but there are other types of schedules too.

Types of Schedules

There are a number of schedules used in anthropological research.

• – Observation Schedule

These are designed to observe specific aspects of the situation under study, for instance, to reveal patterns of either teacher or student behavior in promoting learning. They are generally used by a non-participant observer.

• – Rating Schedules

Also called a rating scale it is used to find information about a set of pre-determined attributes. It is sometimes used by the researcher and at times given to the respondents directly.

• – Evaluation Schedules

This is generally used to collect data about institutions and agencies. There are predetermined categories on which the institute is evaluated.

• – Interview Schedules

This contains questions that the researcher frames to ask during the interview. Space may be provided for writing down the responses of the interviewee or the researcher may simply record the responses electronically. They help in gathering of demographic data in research.

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS (CONTENT ANALYSIS)

A number of documents are found in the field which when studied provide to valuable information. Underlying themes and patterns can be ascertained through the study of documents like mission statements, brochures of information, and manuals. Narratives or diary entries written by people working in a particular field can be reviewed. Textual analysis helps in providing rich insights into the beliefs, motivations and dreams of a particular person or a group of persons. Linguistic analysis of texts can be used to decipher how meanings change over time. Analysis of curriculum frameworks and textbooks can be performed to see how the curriculum and meanings ascribed to a certain portions have changed with change in regimes. There are a number of ways by which content analysis can be done. Some computer software have been developed that ease the process of content analysis of large amount of data.

Summary

The module on Review of Data Collection Methods provides the learner with an account of the different ways in which data can be collected in the anthropological research. There are different types of data such as primary data, secondary data, qualitative data and quantitative data. Different methods and techniques are used for collection of data in social research. Observation is a method in which data is collected through precise viewing of the phenomenon occurring in a social setting. Observations can be participant or non-participant in nature. Questionnaire is an important part of research. There are two kinds of questions in the questionnaire- open ended and closed ended questions. A questionnaire can be structured, unstructured, semi-structured or pictorial questionnaire. Interview is another tool which is used for data collection. It is defined as a conversation with a purpose. Interviews can be individual or focus group interviews. They can be structured (formal) or unstructured (informal). Rapport building forms an essential part of the procedure prior to interviewing. Schedules are also used as tools for data collection. There are different types of schedules like observation schedule, rating schedule, evaluation schedule, and interview schedule. Content analysis or textual analysis of official documents like manuals, mission statements, and personal documents like narratives, diary entries form an important part of data collection to find out the underlying meanings and patterns in a social situation.