33 Socio-Cultural: Census and Demographic Profile

Dr. D.V. Prasad

Contents:

1. Introduction
2. Tools and Techniques of Census and Demographic Profile
3. Demographic Concepts and its Analysis
4. Significance of Census in Collection of Ethnographic Data
5. Anthropological Demography

Summary

Learning Outcomes:

After reading this module you should be able to comprehend:

•  what is Census and Demography and its significance in Anthropology;
•  fieldwork and collection of Census data;
•  demographic analysis through scientific formulas; and
•  its significance in compilation of Ethnography.

1. Introduction

The study of population is not only to understand its growth and continuous change but to understand their socio-cultural and religious profile. In social sciences, the economists concentrate on analyzing the demand, supply, and market to understand its impact on development of the society. But the economic development should be at par with socio-cultural development for building a good civil society. The Political Scientists concentrate on the development of the state and its institutions. The demographers who are known as population experts collect census to know the changes that are taking place in a society i.e., birth, death, migration; further they also use census data to understand the socio-cultural framework of that particular society. Since socio-cultural factors play a pivotal role in society’s inclusive development, anthropologists and sociologists are keen to collect household census and other relevant demographic details in fieldwork besides qualitative data. G.P Murdock was the founder in application of census in socio-cultural profile of the natives through the creation of Human Relations Area File (HRFA) by linking up of modern ethnography and statistics through crosses cultural comparison method. It began compilation in 1937 and completed in 1967 containing the description of more than 240 cultures. Thereafter many anthropologists started using exhaustive checklist for collection of socio-cultural profile of the people. With the advance of technology in computers, the cultural data is being quantified through new software. It is very easy to document the demographic indicators like literacy, age of women at first marriage, fertility, nutritional status, infant mortality, child mortality, knowledge of family planning, ante and pre natal care and can get results within short span of time. Besides demographic data, the socio-economic correlatives like dependence on shifting cultivation, uncertainties of food supplies during lean season, lack of proper health and educational facilities, housing conditions also useful in understanding the backwardness of the community and helps in execution of livelihood programmes for the needy people.

Conceptually, census and demography are two different things. But, it is very difficult to find result in the absence of either. According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary census is the official process of counting the number of people in a country, city, or town and collecting information about them. In early 17th Century, the word census is originated from latin word ‘censere’ means ‘assess’ to denote for taxation. In ancient Rome it is used at first to the registration of citizens and property.

However, the census in its true sense is being collected since 18th century onwards especially to help colonists. Demography refers to the study of population and it is part of Sociology and Anthropology. It deals with measuring size of population and helps in understanding the growth or decline of population in a society. As such the census and demographic data are interrelated to each other and used extensively in social sciences in general and in anthropology and sociology in particular. The population pattern of any given society is governed by three factors. They are mainly

a) Births

b) Deaths

c) Migration

In every society, different factors like family, kinship, marriage, religion, economy, and polity influences the level of births and deaths as well as migrations of population. As such, the demographic data can be collected by carrying out census from the fieldwork. The collection of census is first and foremost task for the students of Anthropology and Sociology. In India, the census was collected once in 10 years by government of India on wider basis to understand the population structure of the country. It is a mammoth exercise carried out once in every 10 years in large scale covering each and every corner of the country. Initially it was not only limited to just collection of statistical figures of Indian population. The collection of ethnographic information on Indian Tribes and Castes was also undertaken besides the quantitative information. The 1931 Census covered the socio-cultural profile of the Tribes in India including its distribution and movement of population, beliefs and customs, traditions, literacy and their language pattern.

2. Tools and Techniques For Collection Of Census And Demographic Profile

The source of collection of census and demographic data is based on fieldwork methods. It is further complimented by the use of archives, registers, and other documentation such as that provided by oral history. For collection of socio-economic and cultural profile of the study area and people, the researcher has to prepare household census schedule at first instances covering the socio-cultural indicators like name, age, sex, marital status, education, religion, caste or tribe, clan or lineage, occupation, etc. After preparation of schedule, the field or study area should be selected based on sampling or pilot survey based on the objectives of the research. Otherwise it is very difficult to collect the whole universe within a short span of time. Whenever the researcher enters the field, it is mandatory to establish rapport building with the villagers or respondents. As soon as the researcher completes his/her rapport building, the first and foremost task is collection of household census by visiting door to door by asking questions randomly to the head of the family or any other knowledgeable person. The data collected through face to face interaction with the respondent are needed to be computerized. Thus collected data should be analyzed by using the following demographic concepts to understand the socio-cultural, economic, religious profile of the people under study.

3. Demographic Concepts And Its Analysis:

To understand the socio-cultural and demographic profile of a tribe or caste, it is pertinent to know the basic concepts like Crude Birth Rate (CBR), fertility, fecundity, mortality, Crude Death Rate (CDR), Infant Mortality Rate, etc.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR):

It is the most common measure of population growth and expressed in terms of live births per year 1000 of the population. It is equal to

Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = Number of births per year X1000/Total Population

It is known as Crude Birth Rate because it is very general in nature and do not reveal what proportion of population is male or female or age distribution. However, if any one wants to understand the population natural increase, the crude birth rate is required. It is also useful in overall comparison between different groups, societies and regions.

Fertility:

Fertility refers to total number of live born children the average woman has. It is the number of children born to an average woman in a given population during her child bearing years. The specific birth rate is calculated in the following formula;

Fertility=Number of children born per yearX1000/number of woman ages 15 to 45in the population

Fecundity:

It refers to the number of children the women are able to have in biological terms. There are variations in fecundity according to age of puberty and menopause. Generally fertility rates are always lower than fecundity because social and cultural factors limit the breeding.

Crude Death Rate (CDR):

It is also known as Mortality rate and calculated in similar to crude birth rate i.e., number of deaths per 1000 of population every year.

CDR=Number of deaths per year X1000/Total Population

Like crude birth rate, the crude death rate also provides a very general index of mortality i.e., the number of deaths in a population. After calculating the natural birth and death rate, now we can understand the growth of population

Population Growth (PG) = Crude Birth Rate (CBR) – Crude Death Rate (CDR) However, the specific death rates in general are known through Infant Mortality Rate.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):

Number of babies per 1000 live births in any year who die before reaching the age of one. It is equal to

IMR=Deaths among children below 1 year oldX1000/Number of live births in the same year

Declining rates of IMR are chief factor on population explosion as it influences on increasing life expectancy. Further illness, nutrition, and effect of natural disasters also influence the life expectancy besides decrease of IMR.

Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR):

To understand age specific deaths especially during the attack of natural disasters like tsunami and earthquake, floods, droughts, and so on, the total number of deaths for a specific age group per 1000 for that age group is calculated. It is equal to

ASDR=Number of deaths for a specific age groupX1000/population for that age group.

Neo-natal Mortality Rate (NMR):

It is divided into two parts. One is early Neo-natal Mortality which covers the death of a live born baby within the first seven days of life and the late neonatal mortality covers the time after 7 days until before 28 days. The sum of these two constitutes the Neo-natal mortality. Generally the total number of deaths to live born infants occurring within the first 27 days of life per number of births within that period is taken while calculating the NMR. It is equal to

NMR=Number of deaths to live born infants occurring within the first 27 days of lifeX1000/number of Births

Post Neo-natal Mortality Rate (PNMR):

It is the number of resident new borns dying between 28 and 364 days of age in a specified geographical area divided by the number of resident live births for the same geographical area and multiplied by 1000

PNMR=Number of deaths to live born infants occurring after the first 27 days of life but before one year of age X1000/number of Births

Likewise dependency ratio, marriage rate, divorce rate, literacy rate, age at marriage, etc., are also calculated from the household census data. Thus analyzed census and demographic data is used to outline the size or composition of a tribe or caste under study. The fertility trends reveals the trends in family size, age at marriage, age of mother at birth of children and it can be combined with projection of mortality and migration trends.

4. Significance Of Census In Collection Of Ethnographic Data

Collection of household census and other demographic information is primary task of anthropologists at the outset of the fieldwork in the selected study area. The data on socio-economic and cultural indicators like marriage age, place of birth, occupation, social category, clan or lineage, mother tongue, religion, education, exhibits the demographic profile of a tribe or caste. Further it also helps in understanding the status and backwardness of the community under study. The socio-cultural correlatives like food taboos, supplies during lean season, customs and beliefs, widow remarriages, art and craft, law, etc., reveals the structure and function of society in its cultural context.

During the colonial period, the British felt it is utmost important to understand the social structure of the country, its people, their religious beliefs and racial affiliations besides their customs and traditions for proper administration of country. The rulers had intrinsic intention to uncover the caste system in India since they wish to exploit the skills of craftsmen due to their perceived interest in world trade. It prompted them to study various socio-cultural factors like traditional occupations, art and crafts, fairs and festivals of the natives purely for economic and colonial interests. Fortunately all the Census officials during the British period are trained anthropologists cum administrators who are assigned the task of documenting the customs and manners of the people. The studies by Risley (1901), Hutton (1931) were the pioneers among the first to write the complete ethnography of the Indian Tribes. Thus the collection of quantitative data in the form of census for collection of socio-cultural information was started early in colonial period. As such ethnicity, caste or class, and religion, mother tongue, and nationality was the subjects for initial census. Later on Indian Census started collecting the fertility data to understand child women ratio in marginal communities. Further data on caste mobility and occupational diversity is collected to understand the M.N. Srinivas’s concept of sanskritization through the process of climbing to high status. The detail census of caste and sub-caste and their tangible and intangible cultural heritage aid in establishing the ethnic identity of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Damle and Kulhali (1972) tried to uncover the condition of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by collecting information on urbanization, migration, education, prevalence of child marriage and occupation. The short ethnographies provided in the early phases of census survey are the first systematic effort to provide anthropological and ethnological data on castes and tribes and introduced the life style of many primitive and isolated communities. The ethnographic accounts of the tribes of Mizoram, North Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA), Nagaland, and Andaman Islands throw light on various current issues like shifting or slash and burn cultivation, and kinship based on genealogical tables, land tenure system for the first time besides data on anthropometric measurements and blood groups. The 1931 census data created history by providing the basis of the present racial classification of the people in the sub-continent. The census data on languages and dialects helped in classification of innumerable languages and dialects and were grouped under different language families and branches. In post Independence the collection of census data underwent tremendous changes to meet the new requirements of social planning and development. A paradigm shift was seen in census collection from that of meeting administrative needs of the colonial government to that of a national government to work towards socio-economic reconstruction, cultural reconstruction and for execution of welfare measures.

The census and demographic data on socio-economic survey of villages, ethnographic studies on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, traditional crafts, fairs and festivals are appreciated by the planners, administrators, social scientists and other action groups as economic development is not isolated phenomenon but it is socio-cultural one in its holistic perspective. It is imperative to see in what direction the change is coming and at what phase of speed it is and whether it is desired by the people are the questions to be answered by anthropologists through the collection of census data. The socio-cultural aspects could not consider in depth specific social and economic processes but being more or less synchronous they provided a cross-cultural comparison. For example the survey on fairs and festivals could provide the trade across the states which provide link to the main market for the local products. In India, still fairs and festivals provide the occasional markets for food grains, livestock and handicrafts from far and near. The integrated nature of the rural society has to be appreciated in the importance of fairs and festivals which are meeting ground of many religions, cultures, and not merely the markets for sale of commodities and crafts. When nation building was realized, it was necessary to revive many traditional occupations and crafts. Further, the census also provides some insights into the history of organization of markets which were inter-linked with socio-cultural and religious life of the people. The statistical data on socio-cultural issues are utmost important for planning the development schemes for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, other Backward Communities, women and others for their upliftment. Owing to its significance, a new branch has originated in Demography to understand the socio-cultural milieu of the people.

Anthropological Demography

Anthropological demography uses anthropological theory and methods to provide a better understanding of demographic phenomena in current and past populations. Initially British Anthropologists extensively used census and demographic data for making generalization on kinship.

Based on the accounts of travellors and adventurists, they collected data and made grand theories on it. Along with empirical fieldwork, census taking in the local population was one of the basic tools for understanding the family process such as household structure, marriage, divorce and child bearing. Later on collection of fertility, mortality, urbanization, industrialization, and literacy has become a common phenomenon for anthropologist as it closely associate with socio-cultural factors since they play an important role in determining the social and demographic transition. Thus, the role of culture in the analysis of demographic process is at the centre of anthropological demography. They seek culturally sound explanations for the observed variation in demographic behavior. To achieve this, anthropologists need to ensure that standard demographic variables such as education or age at marriage are informed by the cultural meaning that this variable assumes in the specific context. For example, school as a socialization agent reinforces in a child the characteristics of honorable conduct taught through specific moral practices. Further they need to be attentive to the symbolic systems of reference in the population they study and thus open to the necessity to modify standard variables or introduce new contextual variables into behavioral models. Finally, they need to interpret the complexity of individual motivations that are beyond local patterns of behavior. Thus anthropological demography pays much attention to the intersection of global and local forces. This focus is similar to the political economy approach to demographic processes, which aims at analyzing the impact of economic forces within their cultural and political context and not in opposition to it. Ideally, a multi level analysis ranging from historical to socio-cultural is the need of the hour to identify the relevant unit of behavioral decisions. One of the challenges for this branch is to proceed beyond the single case studies and promote comparative research designs which would enhance theory testing and the generalization of theories.

Summary

To understand the socio-cultural profile of the studied population, collection of census and demographic data is mandatory for every researcher with the help of fieldwork methods. After collection of such data, the standard demographic indicators like crude birth rate, fertility, crude mortality rate, infant mortality rate, etc., will be useful in understanding the impact of population transition and its correlation with socio-cultural factors. Besides the traditional demographic methods, each and every social phenomenon can be quantified now a days by using the advanced tools techniques in social science research. Due to its significance in understanding the structure and function of a society, a new branch has emerged in demography which is known as anthropological demography. The new branch emphasis on demographic consequences of the socio-cultural aspects of reproduction, mate selection, ageing, and health state of the population unexplored through stereotype studies. At present inter disciplinary research and studies are gaining momentum social engineering. Hence it is the need of the hour to incorporate socio-cultural factors in scientific perspective to insights into the role of culture in understanding the interaction and interrelation between global and local institutional forces within such processes.