16 Types of migration: trends and consequences

Atreyo Mondal and Gautam Kshatriya

Contents:

1. Introduction

2. Mobility, Movement and Migration

3. Illegal vs. Irregular, Undocumented

4. Smuggled vs. Trafficked

5. Migration Classifications

5.1. Geographical Classification

5.1.1. Internal Migration

5.1.2. Interregional Migration

5.1.2.1. Emigration

5.1.2.2. Immigration

5.1.2.3. Transit Migration

5.1.2.4. Circular Migration

5.1.2.5. Return or Re-migration

6. Chronological Classification

6.1. Intentional Duration

6.2. Temporary Migration

7. Demographic and Economic

7.1. Subjects of Migration

7.2. Employment

8. Political and Legal

8.1. Free migration

8.2. Managed (or Controlled) Migration

8.3. Regular or Authorized Migration

8.4. Irregular or Unauthorized Migration

9. Causal Classification

9.1. Free or Spontaneous Human Mobility

10. Trends of Migration

10.1. Migration – 2010

10.2. Skilled Emigration – 2000

11. Consequences of Migration

12. Summary

Learning Objectives:

To know about the mobility, movement and migration
To know about the migration classifications
To know about the recent trends of migration
To know about the consequences of migration

1. Introduction

Types of migration when selecting a theme, it is important to distinguish different forms of movement and migration. Globally, many more people move within borders than across them. Those who move across borders tend to stay in the region of the source country. There are ongoing debates on how different forms of movement can be classified, as they do not always have clear demarcations.

Movement can be: within or across borders; voluntary (for work, study or family reasons) or forced (as a result of conflict or natural disasters); regular (with documentation) or irregular (without documentation); and temporary, seasonal or longer term/permanent. Definitions can change during the process. For example, if a person on a seasonal work contract overstays her contract, she may become an undocumented migrant. In some instances, whole communities may be impelled to move due to conflict or natural disasters. If they remain within national borders, they are referred to as Internally displaced people (IDPs). If they cross international borders, they can become asylum seekers. If asylum is granted under the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), they are known as refugees. Age, gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic circumstances also influence the migration experience. Related policies and institutions should reflect these variations. Report themes can emphasize cultural, environmental or geographical factors, or the consequence of conflict or natural disasters. Report teams may decide to focus on particular groups of migrants, such as youth, women, minorities, etc., and/or forms of migration, such as labour migration, including seasonal migration; student migration; forced displacement; etc.(IOM. 2005).
Some communities or ethnic groups may be more affected by mobility, or the lack of it, than others. Many different forms of migration may affect one particular group. Remittance patterns and their impact can vary depending on whether or not a family moves together. In many countries, several types of movement exist, including internal, emigration, immigration, return, seasonal, transit, regular, irregular and forced. In Russia, for example, there are relatively large numbers of internal migrants. It is also a destination for labour migrants from Central Asia and Eastern Europe. At the same time, it is a transit country for regular and irregular migration passing through Russia to Western Europe—a picture not unlike Mexico’s (UNDP 2010).

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/rasyidatulnajwa7/human-migration-66884364

2. Mobility, Movement and Migration

International migration refers to the movement of people across national borders, whereas internal migration involves the movement of people within borders. In different country contexts, however, and in different languages, the phrase “migration” can have different meanings. For example, it may connote only international migration, or a more specific type of movement, such as permanent migration from one country to another. The use of other terms such as “mobility” and “movement,” or more specific phrases such as “temporary” or “seasonal labour migration” may more clearly describe the form of movement under discussion. This can sometimes help to clarify issues and facilitate more constructive dialogue, especially in countries where the movement of people is a particularly sensitive topic. Report teams can emphasize the freedoms and choices of mobility, and help place discussions on movement and migration within a broader context of basic rights.

3. Illegal vs. Irregular and Undocumented

Some policy makers, media outlets, and other groups may either intentionally, or out of habit, use incorrect and derogatory terms such as “illegal migration,” “illegal migrants,” “illegal aliens” or even “illegals” to describe the movement of people. This type of language is inappropriate, and can exacerbate xenophobia, discrimination and the misperception that migrants are closely associated with criminal activities. Throughout the report process, teams should introduce more appropriate terminology, such as “irregular migration” or “undocumented migrants” to refer to people travelling or residing in a country without proper documentation, including those who overstay. These terms cover asylum seekers, victims of trafficking and others whose status is yet to be determined.

4. Smuggled vs. Trafficked

Report teams should differentiate between “smuggled” and “trafficked.” Some groups use the two terms interchangeably, which has serious implications for the people concerned. A trafficked person is a victim of human rights violations recognized by international law. Victims have the legal right to protection and in some instances compensation. A person who is smuggled by definition colludes with the smuggler and commits a criminal offence by consciously entering another state’s territory without proper documentation. He or she is subject to deportation. If these terms are used interchangeably, the public perception of trafficked victims may be incorrectly anchored in the belief that the victim is a criminal, and his or her treatment may be affected accordingly.

According to the “Recommendations on Statistics of International Migration” by the United Nations Statistics Division (1998), long-term migrants are persons who move to a country other than that of their usual residence for a period of at least one year, so that the country of destination effectively becomes their new country of usual residence. Short-term migrants are persons who move to a country other than that of their usual residence for a period of at least three months but less than one year except in cases where the movement to that country is for purposes of recreation, holiday, visits to friends and relatives, business, medical treatment, or religious pilgrimage (UN Statistics Division, 1998).

5. Migration Classifications

5.1. Geographical Classification

It takes account the phenomenon of migration based on the distance covered in terms of human geography, namely the administrative and political organization of the territory (Eg municipality, provience, region, state, federation of states, continent, etc) and the population distribution in it (Eg, residents, citizens, nationals, etc.) with regard to the territories serving as reference, the following can be distinguished.

5.1.1. Internal migration

It is migration movement within a state, region or area, depending on the territory that is considered as an indivisible unit. There are different categories of internal migration:

Rural-Urban migration: migration from the countryside to the city
Interurban migration: migration from one city to another.
Urban-Rural migration: migration from city to countryside.
Interrural migration: migration from one countryside to another.
Nomadism: continuous movement within a territory (homeless).
Transhumance: displacement from the mountains to the plains due to sheepherding.
Intermunicipal migration: Migration fro one municipality to another.
Interprovincial migration: Migration from one province to another.

5.1.2. Interregional migration

Migration crossing the borders of one or more states. International migration may be divided into different categories based on geographic context:

Transoceanic migration: International migration crossing of one or more oceans.
Transcontinental migration: International migration involving the movement from one continent to another.
Border migration: When international migration takes place between two border locations.
Neighbour migration: When international migratory movement takes place between two neighbour countries.
Regional migration: International migration as the movement takes place within a region. However, when the direction of migration flows serves as reference, the following categories of migration can be highlighted

5.1.2.1. Emigration

The action of leaving a country or other geographic context. It is migration considered from the perspective from the place of origin.

5.1.2.2. Immigration

The action of entering into a country or other geographic context. It is migration considered from the perspective of place of destination.

5.1.2.3. Transit Migration

Migration across or other geographic context without intent to stop or settle on it and with the sole intention to get to another country or geographic context.

5.1.2.4. Circular Migration

Migration that in its original intention, departs from a place of origin, reaches a destination and then returns to the same place of origin within a limited time frame.

5.1.2.5. Return or Re-migration

Migration from the place of destination back to the place of origin.

6. Chronological Classification

The chronological classification considers the phenomenon of migration based on its length in subjective terms (intentional duration) and/or objective terms (effective duration). There are following different categories:

6.1. Intentional duration

The period of time a person (or a group of people) intends to stay out of his/her place of origin. Considering the intentional duration, the following categories can be highlighted:

Temporary Migration: When in the intention of the migrant, the time to be spent away from his/her place of habitual residence has limited duration.
Permanent migration: when, in the intention of the migrant, the time to be spent away from his/her place of habitual residence has no limited duration.
Undetermined migration: when, in the intention of the migrant, there is no specific length of time allotted to the migration experience.
Effective Duration: the period of time a person (or group of people) remains effectively outside his/her place of origin. Considering the effective duration, the following categories can be highlighted:

6.2. Temporary Migration

When the sojourn of a person (or a group of people) outside his/her usual place of residence has a limited duration. There are different categories of temporary migration:

Contract migration: labor migration regulated by a temporary workers’ program, where the length corresponds to the duration of a temporary employment contract;
Seasonal migration: when the length of stay is less than one year and repeated over time; it is often linked to particular conditions of life and work (farming, harvest, service sector, etc.).
Pendular migration: when the duration is less than 24 hours (one day) and the movement is repeated every working day;
Permanent migration: when the sojourn of a person (or a group of people) outside his/her usual place of residence does not have a limited duration.

7. Demographic and Economic classification

The demographic and economic classification considers the phenomenon of migration based on the demographic and economic conditions of migrants.

7.1. Subjects of Migration

Categories based on the characteristics of the people who migrate:

Individual migration: when the subject is an individual;
Family migration: when the subject is a family;
Massive migration (exodus): when a huge number of people are involved in the movement;
Male/female migration: when the criterion is the gender of the person (or group of people) who migrate;
Child/adult/elderly migration: when the criterion is the age of the person (or group of people) who migrate;
First generation: the group of migrants composed by whom actually migrated from their home country to a new place;
Second generation: generally, the children of the first generation either born in the home country or in the place of destination (but there are discussions about the real definition);
Third generation: the grandchildren of the first generation, who are born in the place of destination.
Migration flow: is the number of individuals moving from one place to another during in a certain period of time (e.g. 1 year). Depending on its direction, it is called either emigration flow or immigration flow.
Migration Stock: the number of foreigners (or migrants) residing in a country (or territory) at a certain moment in time (e.g. 31 December 2010).
Migrant population: the assembly of foreigners (or migrants) and their descendants who reside in a country (or territory) at a certain moment in time. Depending on the collective contexts of reference, there are some sub categories: foreign community, ethnic community, ethnic or foreign minority, etc.
Migrant “human power”: refers to migrants of working age residents in a given territory.

7.2. Employment

There are different categories of migration depending on the kind of work performed by migrants:

Migration of rural workers, industrial workers, service workers, etc., depending on the sector in which migrants are employed.
Highly skilled migration: migration of people who are employed in a job requiring a high degree of professionalism.
Skilled migration: migration of people who are employed in professional jobs.
Unskilled migration (or low skilled migration): migration of people who are employed in jobs that do not require any professional qualification.
Brain drain: massive international migration (with little prospect of return) of persons with high qualifications in their country of origin.
Technology migration: migration of human resources highly skilled in the technology sector.
Migrants with independent or autonomous work: foreign workers (or migrants) who are working on their own, as individuals or as a company.
Migrants with dependent or subordinate work: foreign workers (or migrants) who are employed under a labor contract.

8. Political and Legal

The political and legal classification refers to the legal administrative system or the migration policy of the sending or the receiving countries. The categories are as many as the systems and policies. But, more generally, the following categories can be identified:

8.1. Free Migration

Migration that is not controlled (promoted, blocked, limited, etc.) by the government of the concerned sending or receiving country. The movement simply responds to the needs of the labor market and the free initiative of employers and workers.

8.2. Managed (or Controlled) Migration

The migration that is either assisted or organized or promoted or limited or regulated by rules issued by the concerned government of the sending or receiving country or through bilateral or multilateral agreements between countries of origin and destinations or at the regional level (e.g. Mercosur, European Union, etc.).

8.3. Regular or Authorized Migration

The migration, free or managed, which takes place in due respect of all emigration and immigration rules issued by the concerned sending and receiving countries.

8.4. Irregular or Unauthorized Migration

The migration that takes place breaking one or more emigration and/or immigration rules of the concerned sending or receiving countries. There are several types of irregular migration, but this matter will be discussed later on.

9. Causal Classification

The causal classification of human mobility is based on the causes, reasons and motivations that have generated it. In this sense the following categories can be identified:

9.1. Free or spontaneous Human Mobility

When the movement is the result of the free choice of the person (or group) who migrates. The reasons for the free migration may be the following:

Economic or labor migration: when the motivation for migration is working in a place other than home.
Health migration: when the motivation for migration is the realization of a medical treatment, therapy or surgery in a place other than home.
Study migration: when the motivation for migration is the realization of studies in a place other than home.
Tourism: when the motivation for the movement is visiting a place other than home.
Pilgrimage, when the motivation for migration is a religious pilgrimage to a sacred place far from the place of origin.
Business migration: when the motivation for migration is to conduct business in a place other than home.

9.2. Forced Migration

When the movement is forced by conflict, natural disasters, persecution, discrimination and deportation:

Refugee: person recognized as a victim of forced migration by the hosting country or the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR);
Asylum seeker: a victim of forced migration who has filed an application for asylum and is awaiting a response;
Displaced person: person who is victim of forced migration; the victims of forced migration moving within a national territory are called “internally displaced persons” (IDPs).
Exile: person forced by the government of his/her own country to leave his/her homeland and reside abroad;
Deported: a person forced to leave the foreign country in which he/she stays for different reasons (F Baggio).

10. Trends of Migration

Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011 presents numbers and facts behind the stories of international migration and remittances, drawing on authoritative, publicly available data. Some interesting facts:

■ More than 215 million people, or 3 percent of the world population, live outside their countries of birth. Current migration flows, relative to population, are weaker than those of the last decades of the nineteenth century.

10.1 Migration- 2010

■ Stock of immigrants: 215.8 million or 3.2 percent of population

■ Females as percentage of immigrants: 48.4 percent

■ Refugees: 16.3 million or 7.6 percent of the total immigrants

■ South–South migration is larger than migration from the South to the high income OECD countries. Over 43 percent of the migrants from developing countries are believed to be residing in other developing countries.

■ Top 10 destination countries: the United States, the Russian Federation, Germany, Saudi Arabia,

Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Australia, India. As a share of population, top immigration countries include Qatar (86.5 percent); Monaco (71.6 percent); the United Arab Emirates (70.0 percent); Kuwait (68.8 percent); Andorra (64.4 percent); Cayman Islands (63.0 percent); Northern Mariana Islands (62.0 percent); Virgin Islands (U.S

■ Top 10 emigration countries: Mexico, India, the Russian Federation, China, Ukraine, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Turkey

■ Top 10 migration corridors: Mexico–United States; the Russian Federation– Ukraine; Ukraine– Russian Federation; Bangladesh–India; Turkey–Germany; Kazakhstan–the Russian Federation; the Russian Federation–Kazakhstan; China–Hong Kong SAR, China; China–United States; the Philippines–United States

10.2. Skilled Emigration – 2000

■ Emigration rate of tertiary-educated population (top 10 countries): Guyana (89.0 percent), Grenada (85.1 percent), Jamaica (85.1 percent), St. Vincent and the Grenadines (84.5 percent), Haiti (83.6 percent), Trinidad and Tobago (79.3 percent), St. Kitts and Nevis (78.5 percent), Samoa (76.4 percent), Tonga (75.2 percent), St. Lucia (71.1 percent)

■ Emigration of physicians: 336,416 or 4.2 percent of physicians trained in the world

■ The top migrant destination country is the United States, followed by the Russian Federation,

Germany, Saudi Arabia, and Canada. The top immigration countries, relative to population, are Qatar (87 percent), Monaco (72 percent), the United Arab Emirates (70 percent), Kuwait (69 percent), and Andorra (64 percent).

■ The United States has seen the largest inflows of migrants between 2005 and 2010. There was a surge of migrant flows to Spain, Italy, and the United Kingdom, mainly from Eastern Europe as well as Latin America and North Africa. The six Gulf Cooperation Council countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) have also seen a significant increase in migrant flows in the past few years, mostly from South Asia and East Asia. However, new migration flows in all regions have weakened because of the global financial crisis.

■ The volume of South–South migration (migration between developing countries) is larger than migration from the South to high-income countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). High-income non-OECD countries such as the Gulf countries are also major destinations for migrants from the South. South–South migration is significantly larger than migration from the South to high-income OECD countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (73 percent) and Europe and Central Asia (61 percent).

■ According to available official data, Mexico–United States is the largest migration corridor in the world, accounting for 11.6 million migrants in 2010. Migration corridors in the former Soviet Union— Russia–Ukraine and Ukraine–Russia—are the next largest, followed by Bangladesh–India; in these corridors, many natives became migrants without moving when new international boundaries were drawn.

■ Smaller countries tend to have higher rates of skilled emigration. Almost all physicians trained in Grenada and Dominica have emigrated abroad. Cape Verde, Fiji, Liberia, São Tomé and Principe, and St. Lucia are also among the countries with very high emigration rates of physicians.

■ Refugees and asylum seekers made up 16.3 million, or 8 percent, of international migrants in 2010. The share of refugees in the migrant population was 14.6 percent in low-income countries compared with 2.1 percent in high-income OECD countries. The Middle East and North Africa region had the largest share of refugees and asylum seekers among immigrants (65 percent), followed by South Asia (20 percent), Sub-Saharan Africa (17 percent), and East Asia and Pacific (8.8 percent).

■ In 2010, worldwide remittance flows are estimated to have exceeded $440 billion. From that amount, developing countries received $325 billion, which represents an increase of 6 percent from the 2009 level. The true size, including unrecorded flows through formal and informal channels, is believed to be significantly larger. Recorded remittances in 2009 were nearly three times the amount of official aid and almost as large as foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to developing countries.

■ In 2010, the top recipient countries of recorded remittances were India, China, Mexico, the Philippines, and France. As a share of GDP , however, smaller countries such as Tajikistan (35 percent), Tonga (28 percent), Lesotho (25 percent), Moldova (31 percent), and Nepal (23 percent) were the largest recipients in 2009.

■ High-income countries are the main source of remittances. The United States is by far the largest, with $48 billion in recorded outward fl ows in 2009. Saudi Arabia ranks as the second largest, followed by Switzerland and Russia.

■ Remittance flows to developing countries proved to be resilient during the recent global financial crisis—they fell only 5.5 percent in 2009 and registered a quick recovery in 2010. By contrast, there was a decline of 40 percent in FDI flows and a 46 percent decline in private debt and portfolio equity flows in 2009.

11. Consequences of Migration

Frequent and timely monitoring of migration and remittance trends can provide policy makers, researchers, and the development community with the tools to make informed decisions.

Cross-country analysis and evidence from household surveys suggest that migration and remittances reduce poverty in the origin communities. Remittances lead to increased investments in health, education, and small businesses. At the same time, the loss of skills associated with migration can hamper development and delivery of basic services in sending countries. The diaspora of developing countries can be a source of capital, trade, investment, knowledge, and technology transfers.

Resilience of Remittance Flows Relative to Other Types of Flows during the Global Financial Crisis Despite a modest decline in remittance in flows to developing countries, these flows have remained more resilient compared with private debt and equity flows and foreign direct investment. There are several reasons for the resilience of remittances in the face of economic downturns in host countries:

Remittances are sent by the cumulated flows of migrants over the years, not only by the new migrants of the past year or two. This makes remittances persistent over time. If new migration stops, then over a period of a decade or so, remittances may stop growing. But they will continue to increase as long as migration flows continue.
Remittances are a small part of migrants’ incomes, and migrants continue to send remittances when affected by income shocks.
Because of a rise in anti-immigration sentiments and tighter border controls in the United States and Europe, the duration of migration appears to have increased. Those migrants staying back are likely to continue to send remittances.
If migrants do indeed return, they are likely to take back accumulated savings. This may have been the case in India during the Gulf war of 1990–91, which forced a large number of Indian workers in the Gulf to return home (Ratha 2003, 163). Also the “safe haven” factor, or “home bias,” can cause remittances for investment purposes to return home during an economic downturn in the host country.

REMITTANCES

■ Top 10 remittance recipients in 2010 (billions): India ($55.0 bn), China ($51.0 bn), Mexico ($22.6 bn), Philippines ($21.3 bn), France ($15.9 bn), and Germany ($11.6 bn),

Source – Migration and Remittances Factbook, 2011.

Abuse and fraud by private recruiters. Intermediaries, or “middlemen,” play an important role in facilitating labour migration. The cost of their services, however, can be high. In some cases, migrants find after moving that their contract does not exist, there have been changes to their contract, or there are serious violations related to personal safety and working conditions.

Domestic, bilateral, regional and international migration regimes that may limit regular migration options through quotas and requirements for entry, family mobility, and conversion of status from temporary to permanent despite high demand, particularly for low-skilled and seasonal workers in agriculture, construction, manufacturing and services. As a result, some people may choose more costly, higher-risk options to gain admission or overstay at destination; there may also be cases where irregular migration may be less costly.

As noted by the 2009 global report, migration can have a mixed impact on traditional gender roles in migrant households: “When women move, this can change traditional roles, especially those surrounding the care of children and the elderly. When men migrate, rural women can be empowered by their absence: field studies conducted in Ecuador, Ghana, India, Madagascar and Moldova all found that, with male migration, rural women increased their participation in community decision-making.” At the same time, in some households, the burden on women as caretakers may increase, or, when a male migrant returns, traditional norms may come back into place.

One of the more commonly discussed forms of fallout from migration, and a key concern for many source governments, especially for small and less developed states, involves broader changes in workforce composition, or the so-called “brain-drain.”

The global report noted that “mobility can have profound consequences for social, class and ethnic hierarchies in origin communities if lower status groups gain access to substantially higher income streams.” In addition to higher income, return migrants and communication networks can transfer ideas and practices back to communities of origin. These “social” remittances can help spread knowledge in households and across communities on issues related to health, nutrition and hygiene, more empowering gender roles, lower fertility rates, greater educational expectations for girls and female labour force participation. Frequent return visits and/or collective diaspora and return migrant initiatives can also affect patterns of political and social participation. There can be negative social aspects as well. Mobility can at times serve as a vehicle for the more rapid transmission of HIV and AIDS, for example. The deportation of youth from the United States back to Central America has been linked to the export of gangs and gang cultures.

When migrant skills complement those of locally born workers, both groups may benefit, although the results may be mixed.

Rapid urbanization, which is frequently fed by internal migration, can cause challenges for destination communities, as well as migrants.

12. Summary

Globally, many more people move within borders than across them. Those who move across borders tend to stay in the region of the source country.

Movement can be: within or across borders; voluntary (for work, study or family reasons) or forced (as a result of conflict or natural disasters); regular (with documentation) or irregular (without documentation); and temporary, seasonal or longer term/permanent.

In some instances, whole communities may be impelled to move due to conflict or natural disasters. If they remain within national borders, they are referred to as Internally displaced people (IDPs). If they cross international borders, they can become asylum seekers. If asylum is granted under the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees they are known as refugees.

According to migration and remittances factbook 2011 more than 215 million people, or 3 percent of the world population, live outside their countries of birth. Current migration flows, relative to population, are weaker than those of the last decades of the nineteenth century.

Frequent and timely monitoring of migration and remittance trends can provide policy makers, researchers, and the development community with the tools to make informed decisions. Age, gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic circumstances also influence the migration experience.

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References

2011. (2nd Eds). Migration and Remittance Factbook. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.
Baggio, F., Descriptive Classifications of Migration.
IOM. (2005). Essentials of Migration Management for Policy Makers And Practitioners: Course Manual. Geneva, p. 5.
Ratha, D., (2003).Worker’s Remittances: An Important and Stable Source of External Development Finance.” In Global Development Finance: Striving for Stability in Development Finance. pp- 157–75. Washington, DC: World Bank.
United Nations Development Programme. (2010). Mobility and Migration A Guidance Note for Human Development Report Teams.

Suggested Readings

Survey of Research in Demography by P.B. Desai.
An Introduction to Population by O.W Kenneth and Kammeyer.
Dynamics of Population and Family Welfare in India by Srinivasan and Mukerjee.
Principals of Population Genetics by , A., Bhende and T. Kanitkar.