{"id":360,"date":"2019-03-27T09:26:32","date_gmt":"2019-03-27T09:26:32","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp11.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&p=360"},"modified":"2019-03-27T09:42:45","modified_gmt":"2019-03-27T09:42:45","slug":"the-himalayas-socio-biological-aspects-environmental-case-studies","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp11\/chapter\/the-himalayas-socio-biological-aspects-environmental-case-studies\/","title":{"rendered":"The Himalayas: Socio biological aspects -environmental case studies"},"content":{"raw":"
\"epgp<\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n
\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nContents:<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Himalayas: General Introduction\r\n\r\nDivision of the Himalayas:\r\n\r\nHimalaya Vs Himalayas:\r\n\r\nSummary\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nLearning Objectives<\/strong>:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To understand the physiographic division of Himalayas\r\n\r\n2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To learn the agro ecological zones of the Himalayas\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 To comprehend the cultural zones of the Himalayas\r\n

4.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0To explore the general idea of the prominent communities of Himalayas and their interaction with the environment.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Himalayas: General Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

A steeper substantial physiographic landform extending sizeably above its surroundings regions which usually culminated into peak is referred to as mountain. Mountains are formed through the orogentic (mountain building) forces of crumpling of continental-plates where one plate is thrusted upon the other and through volcanic activities. The youngest fold mountains-the Himalaya are formed primarily as a consequence to folding and faulting which resulted on account of convergence of Asian and European continental Plates (Figure No:1).<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

India is a country of varied geo-tectonic history and great physiographic divisions. The country has broadly been categorised into the following four major physiographic divisions: a) The Northern Mountains, b). The Great Plains, c). The Peninsular Uplands, d). The Indian Coasts.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The northern Mountain regions comprises of the Himalaya and its offshoots covering a huge area of about 5,00,000 km2.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Figure No.1<\/strong>: Himalayan Orogeny Convergence of Asian & Eurasian Plates<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nDivision of the Himalayas:<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Different scholars have put forth different schemes of divisions of the Himalayas. On the basis of Geology and regionalisation there are twofollowing divisions of the Himalaya:<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nI.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 As according to the Mountain Ranges-<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\na)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Trans-Himalayan Ranges<\/span>\r\n\r\nb)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Himalayan Ranges (Main Himalayan Mountains)<\/span>\r\n\r\nc)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Eastern Hills (Purvanchal Hills)<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The Trans-Himalayas <\/em><\/strong>along with the below mentioned three ranges of the Himalayas have been formed owing to collision of Indian plate with the Eurasian plate in four episodic events. The trans-Himalayas lie in the Northern most area in the country in states of Jammu and Kashmir and partly in Himachal Pradesh as well as northern extremity of Sikkim which is an extension of Tibetan plateau around the <\/span>Himalayas<\/em><\/strong>. Following are some of the prominent trans-Himalayan Ranges:<\/span><\/p>\r\n

d)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Karakoram Range<\/span><\/p>\r\n

e)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Ladakh Range<\/span><\/p>\r\n

f)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Zanskar Range<\/span><\/p>\r\n

g)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Kailash Range<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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(Source:<\/strong>\u00a0<\/span>http:\/\/s3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com\/wpcd-uploads\/uploads\/2016\/12\/himalayas-<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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final_wm.png<\/a>)<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nII.\u00a0 As according to Regional Division of the Himalaya-<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Himalaya is regionallydivided into the following three broad groups:<\/span>\r\n\r\na)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Western Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\nb)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Central Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\nc)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Eastern Himalaya.<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe western Himalaya is consists of two subsections:<\/span>\r\n\r\ni.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Kashmir Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\nii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Himachal Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nSimilarly, the Central Himalaya also has two sub-sections:\r\n\r\ni.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Kumaon Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\nii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nepal Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Eastern Himalayan Region is sub-categorized into the following three sub-sections:<\/span>\r\n\r\ni.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\nii.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Bhutan Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\niii.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Arunachal Himalaya<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nHimalaya Vs Himalayas:<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n

The word \u2018Himalaya\u2019 is Sanskrit word which means \u2018Abode of Snow\u2019 or \u2018Cold\/Snowy Receptacle\/Dwelling\u2019. Often the words \u2018Himalaya\u2019 and \u2018Himalayas\u2019 are used interchangeably. However, these two words carry slight nuanced different meaning. Owing to it vast extent, geo-tectonic diversity and episodic process of formation, the mountain system showcases both homogeneity and appreciable heterogeneity. As we discussed above, the mountains are divided into three sections geologically. Hence, the three sections-the Himalayan Range, Tans-Himalayan Range\u00a0<\/span>&\u00a0\u00a0 Eastern Hills are together referred to as the \u2018Himalayas\u2019. While the \u2018Himalaya\u2019 refers to only the Himalyan ranges which are considered to be the main\/proper Himalayan Mountain. The main Himalayan range consists of the following three divisions:<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

a)\u00a0 Himadri\/Inner\/Great Himalaya<\/span><\/p>\r\n

b)\u00a0 Lesser\/Himachal\/Middle Himalaya<\/span><\/p>\r\n

c)\u00a0 Outer\/Siwalik\/Sub Himalaya Foot Hills<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The Himadri \/Great Himalaya: These are the northernmost section of the main Himalayan block and in its highest section has an average height of 6000 meters. This section of Himalaya serves as the effective barrier for the monsoon wind emanating from the Bay of Bengal. Thus, serving as the orographic divide (Figure no.2). North of the Himadari lies the cold-arid landscape of the Trans-Himalayan world while the valleys on the southern slopes of the Himadri are verdant green which showcases distinct socio-economic personality than that of trans-Himalaya. With a steeper slope on the south than north, average width of the Himadari is about150 Kilometres. This section of the Himalaya is most continuous; running from Indus gorge near Nanga Parbat in the west to the valley of Dihang close to the Namcha Barwa peak in the east. These mountains have a core of granite which is flanked by metamorphosed sedimentary rocks such as graphite, gneiss and schists.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Figure No.2: <\/strong>The Himalayas as orographic Barrier .<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Some of the prominent peaks of the Himadri range of the Himalaya are as follows: Mt. Everest(Nepal-China), Mt Khangchendzonga (Sikkim-Nepal), Mt. Nuptse (Nepal), Mt. Amadablam (Nepal), Mt. Annapurna (Nepal), Mt. Makalu (Nepal), Mt. Dhaulagiri (Nepal), Mt. Nandadevi (Uttarakhand), Mt. Reo-purgeol(Himachal Pradesh), Mt. Chomolhari (Bhutan), Kangto (Arunachal Pradesh) etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Mountain passes have always been important anthropologically. Being the lowest point on a ridge connecting two valleys, these passes traditionally served as the seasonal conduit corridors for peopling in and across the Himalaya and connected the valleys and pastures of different ecological zones across different ridges. Following are some the important passes in the Himadari range: Burzil, Zojila (J&K), Bara-Lachala, Shipkila, Kalicho (Himachal Pradesh), Thagala, Nitila, Lipu-lekhla (Uttarakhand), Nathula, Jelepla, Khangla, Dokala (Sikkim), Sela, Bomdila, Bumla (Arunachal Pardesh).<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The Lesser\/Middle\/Himachal Himalaya: It is most intricate and rugged section of the Himalaya which has average height of 3700-4500 meters and average width of 80 kilometers. The lesser Himalaya are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks, varying in age from the algonkian to Eocene. The northern slopes in this section of the Himalaya are gentler. Following are the important mountain ranges of this section of the Himalaya: Pir-panjal Range (J&K), Dhauladhar Range (Himachal Pardesh), Nag-Tibba Range (Garhwal, Uttarakhand), Mahabharata Range (Nepal), Mussorie Range (Uttarakhand). Out of these ranges, pir-panjal are by far the longest with an extent of about 400 kilometers. Most of the important hill stations such as Shimla, Chail, Ranikhet, Mussorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling etc. belong to these mountain ranges. Incidentally most of these important hill stations have been important colonial towns as well.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Banihal, Pir-panjal (J&K), Rohtang, Buran (Himachal Pradesh), Rupinla ( Uttarakhand) are some of the important passes of the middle Himalaya. These ranges are largely composed of metamorphic and unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks such as slate, limestone, quartz etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The slopes of these mountain ranges have traditionally been quite significant both ecologically and economically by supporting animal rearing traditionally nomadic communities such as Gaddis (Himachal Pradesh & J & K), Gujjars (J & K), Pangwals (Himachal Pradesh), Drokpas (Sikkim & Tibet), Brokpas (J & K) and other pastoral communities such as Kinnaura (Himachal Pradesh), Lahaulas (Himachal Pradesh), Jaunsari (Uttaranchal), Garhwalis (Uttaranchal), Lepchas (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Limbus (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Sherpas (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Bhutias (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal, Tibet), Monpas (Arunachal Pradesh), Nyshi (Arunachal Pradesh), Adis (Arunachal) Pradesh), Mishmis (Arunachal) Pradesh) etc., which relied a great deal on rearing domestic. The grasslands in this section has been known as <\/span>murg<\/em> in Kashmir, <\/span>thach<\/em> and <\/span>kanda<\/em> in Himachal and <\/span>bugyial<\/em> and <\/span>payar<\/em> in Uttarakhand.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Photo: Runang-Kanda<\/em> in Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh<\/p>\r\n \r\n

The Siwalik\/ Sub Himalayan Foot Hills\/Outer Himalaya: This section of the Himalaya prominently extends from potwar basin in the west to the kosi river in the east. Subsequently, this section of the Himalaya continues eastward in a highly discontinuous fashion. It has an average height\u00a0of about 900-1200 meters above mean sea-level with varying degree of width in the western and eastern section. The width of this mountain range varies between 10 to 50 kilometres.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The Siwaliks are the most dissected section of the Himalaya due to the cris-crossing of various Himalayan rivers. The valleys separting these ranges from the middle Hiamlaya are the zones where <\/span>duns <\/em>(in west) and<\/span> duars <\/em>(in east are located). Examples of such duns are Udhampur, Kotli in Jammu region and Kota, Potli, Dehradun, Chaukhamba etc in Uttarakhand. Anthropologically, these <\/span>duns<\/em> and <\/span>duars <\/em>have been significant because of bein the transition zone where vibrant social interactions took place between highlanders and lowland economies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Fig. Altitudinal gradations and ecological settings of the Himalayas.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n \r\n

As the varying degrees of slopes and altitude leads to different soil formation and erosion factors including different degree of pressure and temperature, the mountains are known for varying ecological set-ups over short distances. Social and economic personality of any place\u00a0<\/span>depends on the prevailing environmental conditions. Thus, the ecological settings of the Himalayas\u00a0<\/span>depends upon the altitudinal gradations the mountain system which in turn imparts it distinct social and economic personality.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

On the basis of altitudinal variations and resultant ecological set-<\/span>ups, the Himalayas are categorised in the following six ecological zones:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nFigure No: 3\r\n\r\ni.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tropical Moist Himalayan Zones (between 300 to 900 meters above mean sea level)\r\n\r\nii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sub-tropical Humid Himalayan Zone (between 900 to 1500 meters above mean sea level)\r\n\r\niii.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Semi-temperate Himalayan Zone (between 1500 to 2000 meters above mean sea level)\r\n\r\niv.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Temperate Himalayan Zones (between 2000 to 3000metersabove mean sea level)\r\n\r\nv.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Alpine Snow Forest Zone (between 3000 to 4500metersabove mean sea level)\r\n\r\nvi.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Alpine Meadows\/Tundra (between 4500 to 6000metersabove mean sea level)\r\n

vii.\u00a0 Arctic (Above 6000 metersabove mean sea level). As this zone largely lies in permanent snow bound conditions, it is beyond agro-economic zones.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Based on the above ecological zones which determined the carrying capacity and agricultural potentials of different zones, five distinct types of agro-economic activity zones<\/strong> were categorised. These economic activity zones were closely associated with various ethnic groups in the Himalayas and are as follows:<\/p>\r\na)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Specialised Pastoralism:\r\n\r\nb)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Mixed Agro-Pastoralism\r\n\r\nc)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Cereal Based Farming System\r\n\r\nd)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Shifting Agriculture\r\n\r\ne)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Specialised Commercial System\r\n\r\n \r\n

The zone of specialised Pastoralism has been confined largely to the Himalyan highland (High<\/strong> Altitudinal Areas<\/strong>) of altitude ranging between 3000-6000 meters above mean sea level. Brokpas, Changpas of ladakh, Lahaulas, Kinnaurs and Gaddis Himachal Pradesh Pradesh along with them Drokpas of Sikkim and Monpas of Arunachal Pardesh have traditionally been under this zone for long. These pastoralists have been herding yaks, sheeps, goats along with horses and mules as the mainstay of their economy while periodically moving primarily in the trans-Himalayan zone.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Incidentally, this zone has predominance of Lamaistic Buddhism and predominance of Tibetan culture with predominance of mongoloid stock of people across the entire length of the Himalayas.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Mixed agro-pastrolism has been confined to <\/span>mid-altitudinal areas<\/strong> which range between 1500 to 3000 meters. This has been a sedentary economic zones where people combined sedentary cultivation along with animal herding. Lager part of Himachal Pradesh including lower Kinnaur, Kashmir valley regions and neighbouring areas as Uttaranchal in the western Himalaya and Sikkim and considerable chunk of Arunchal Pradesh falls under this categories where people primarily reared goats and sheeps among smaller domestic animals while cows, buffaloes among the bigger cattle. In addition to these people reared mithuns as well in Arunachal Pradesh.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Photo:\u00a0 Himalayan Community:\u00a0 a &\u00a0 b: Ladakhi\u00a0 of Jammu\u00a0 &\u00a0 Kashmir,\u00a0 c:\u00a0 Pangwal\u00a0 of Himachal Pradesh, d: Lepcha of Sikkim, e: Monpa of Arunachal Pradesh, f & g: Kinnaura of Himachal Pradesh, h: Idu-Mishmi of Arunachal Pardesh.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Cereal based hill farming has been confined to a zone of low to mid altitudinal areas where wet paddy cultivation has been widespread along with other cereal crops.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Shifting agriculture is a practice of cultivation where fields are tilled temporarily only for few years owing to declining soil fertility; three to 5 years on an average. Subsequently, agricultural fields are abandoned and a new plot is carved out while the previous ones are left to get back to their natural vegetation. Till recent decades shifting Cultivation prevalent in the low altitudinal regions of the Eastern Himalayas and its foot hills. Thus, it used to be part of the Tropical Moist Himalayan Zones and Sub-tropical Humid Himalayan Zone.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Specialised Commercial system has traditionally been confined to low altitudinal to mid-altitudinal areas. It has basically been monoculture practice. These are best represented by plantation agriculture and have been largely present in the Eastern Himalayan region of Sikkim, Darjeeling and Arunchal Pradesh while only a smaller are areas from the western Himalayas exhibits this form of agro-economic zones. The examples of the tea, Cinchona and cardamom plantations are the prominent examples of this zone where some of the prominent community residing are Lepcha, Bhutias, Sherpa, Gurung, Limbus, Rai, Magars etc. The horticultural mission has extended specialised commercial agriculture to even mid-altitudinal and high altitudinal areas. This has happened quite prominently with apple plantations in kinnaur, Chamba, Shimla, Lahaul & spiti and Kullu districts of Himachal as well as a smaller tract in Arunchal Pradesh where driving horticultural crops have been apple, oranges and Kiwis. The Specialised Commercial agriculture has not only employed the indigenous communities but has also introduced some of the indigenous communities from the chhotanagpur plateau areas to the Tea and cinchona plantations in the eastern Himalayan regions during colonial times. These tribes are often interchangeably referred to as tea-tribes or <\/span>Adivasi.<\/em> These are Santhal, Munda, Ho, Oraons etc tribes. These ethnic groups are largely confined to low altitudinal areas and foot-hills of Himalayas.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The peopling of Himalaya can best be comprehended taking the cultural regions in consideration.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

Entire Himalayas can be broadly categorized into the following four cultural regions:<\/span><\/p>\r\n

a)\u00a0 \u00a0 Lamaistic Buddhism (Pre-dominence of Tibetan Culture)<\/span><\/p>\r\n

b)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Indic or Hindu Culture<\/span><\/p>\r\n

c)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Transition\/ Intermediate Zone between Lamaistic Buddhism and Hindu Culture<\/span><\/p>\r\n

d)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Islamic Culture<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Source<\/strong>: http:\/\/archive.unu.edu\/unupress\/unupbooks\/80a02e\/80A02E07.gif<\/p>\r\n \r\n

With exception of Islamic culture, these remaining three cultural zones by an large follows the general schemes of ecological and altitudinal zonation of the Himalayas. Lamaistic Culture is predominant largely in the entire extending of the trans-Himalayas and in considerable portion of the Great Himalyan Range, more so on its northern slopes. This zone lies in high altitudinal areas with prevalence of cold-arid conditions. Spitians, Ladakhis, Lahaulas, Kinnaura (Upper Kinnaur), Bhotias, Drokpas, Drukpas, Brokpas, Sherpas, Monpas are some of the prominent communities of this cultural zone.<\/p>\r\n \r\n

The southern slopes of the Great Himalyan ranges as well the pir-panjal, Dhauladhar, Mahabharat ranges etc. lying in the high to mid-altitudinal zones. This cultural area is basically a transition zone. Kinnaura, Lahuala, Pangwal, Gaddi, Tamang, Gurungs etc communities reside in this cultural zone\u00a0who exhibit a mix of both Hindu practices and Lamaistic Buddhism is evident. This zone can largely be traced in the Temperate Himalayan Zone.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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Fig. Monks in the Pin Valley of Spiti, Himachal Pradesh<\/p>\r\n \r\n

Lastly, the Indic or the Hindu Cultural zone is largely predominant from the Tropical Moist Cultural Zone to Semi-temperate Cultural zones upto about 2000 meters in the Himalayas. Islamic cultural israther an exception in terms of location as it lies beyond the ecological altitudinal profiling of the Himalayas but in smaller section of western Himalayas in Jammu & Kashmir.<\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\nSummary<\/strong>\r\n\r\n \r\n

Owing to the episodic orogeny, the Himalaya has been a mountain system of great altitudinal variations and physiographic diversity. However, rather than being the impenetrable fortress, the Himalayas have always been the zone of interactions physiographic, socio-cultural and economic traits. Its orogeny from the collision of the Asian and Eurasian plates and subsequent rise made it the gateway\u00a0to central-Asia and beyond. This resulted in bidirectional movement of men and materials and while imparting it a distinct bio-cultural identity.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Higher altitudinal areas of the Himalayas have traditionally been less pluralistic with inclination towards being bi-religious. The two religious groups Buddhism and Hinduism often coexist in juxtaposed manner as they often trace rather similar identities, which have their common roots in the indigenous traditions dress, food habits, language and ethnicity etc. where environment continue to play deterministic role.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

Religion commands a greater importance in the trans-Himalyan and great Himalyan regions like ladakha, Lahual & Spiti, Kinnaur, North Sikkim and Tawang area of Arunachal Pradesh where forces of Nature play more conspicuous role. Either local deities are trusted to govern the forces of Nature or natural elements are revered as deities. Almost every festival is scheduled according to climatic pattern and every work of significance is carried with prior blessing of local deity. No matter how the modern world perceives the belief system of these mountain people, it cannot be contested that religion has been successfully imparting confidence in people to venture out far and wide for existence amid the challenging environmental conditions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n

The economic prosperity and integration with rest of the country has lessened the hold of local deities to some extent. Nevertheless, highlanders are still remains deeply religious and more in sync with their immediate ecological settings than the places of lower altitude.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
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\u00a0 \u00a0 Suggested Readings:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n