35 The Himalayas: Socio biological aspects -environmental case studies
Uttam Lal
Contents:
The Himalayas: General Introduction
Division of the Himalayas:
Himalaya Vs Himalayas:
Summary
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the physiographic division of Himalayas
2. To learn the agro ecological zones of the Himalayas
3. To comprehend the cultural zones of the Himalayas
4. To explore the general idea of the prominent communities of Himalayas and their interaction with the environment.
The Himalayas: General Introduction
A steeper substantial physiographic landform extending sizeably above its surroundings regions which usually culminated into peak is referred to as mountain. Mountains are formed through the orogentic (mountain building) forces of crumpling of continental-plates where one plate is thrusted upon the other and through volcanic activities. The youngest fold mountains-the Himalaya are formed primarily as a consequence to folding and faulting which resulted on account of convergence of Asian and European continental Plates (Figure No:1).
India is a country of varied geo-tectonic history and great physiographic divisions. The country has broadly been categorised into the following four major physiographic divisions: a) The Northern Mountains, b). The Great Plains, c). The Peninsular Uplands, d). The Indian Coasts.
The northern Mountain regions comprises of the Himalaya and its offshoots covering a huge area of about 5,00,000 km2.
Figure No.1: Himalayan Orogeny Convergence of Asian & Eurasian Plates
Division of the Himalayas:
Different scholars have put forth different schemes of divisions of the Himalayas. On the basis of Geology and regionalisation there are twofollowing divisions of the Himalaya:
I. As according to the Mountain Ranges-
a) Trans-Himalayan Ranges
b) The Himalayan Ranges (Main Himalayan Mountains)
c) The Eastern Hills (Purvanchal Hills)
The Trans-Himalayas along with the below mentioned three ranges of the Himalayas have been formed owing to collision of Indian plate with the Eurasian plate in four episodic events. The trans-Himalayas lie in the Northern most area in the country in states of Jammu and Kashmir and partly in Himachal Pradesh as well as northern extremity of Sikkim which is an extension of Tibetan plateau around the Himalayas. Following are some of the prominent trans-Himalayan Ranges:
d) The Karakoram Range
e) The Ladakh Range
f) The Zanskar Range
g) The Kailash Range
II. As according to Regional Division of the Himalaya-
The Himalaya is regionallydivided into the following three broad groups:
a) Western Himalaya
b) Central Himalaya
c) Eastern Himalaya.
The western Himalaya is consists of two subsections:
i. Kashmir Himalaya
ii. Himachal Himalaya
Similarly, the Central Himalaya also has two sub-sections:
i. Kumaon Himalaya
ii. Nepal Himalaya
The Eastern Himalayan Region is sub-categorized into the following three sub-sections:
i. Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya
ii. Bhutan Himalaya
iii. Arunachal Himalaya
Himalaya Vs Himalayas:
The word ‘Himalaya’ is Sanskrit word which means ‘Abode of Snow’ or ‘Cold/Snowy Receptacle/Dwelling’. Often the words ‘Himalaya’ and ‘Himalayas’ are used interchangeably. However, these two words carry slight nuanced different meaning. Owing to it vast extent, geo-tectonic diversity and episodic process of formation, the mountain system showcases both homogeneity and appreciable heterogeneity. As we discussed above, the mountains are divided into three sections geologically. Hence, the three sections-the Himalayan Range, Tans-Himalayan Range & Eastern Hills are together referred to as the ‘Himalayas’. While the ‘Himalaya’ refers to only the Himalyan ranges which are considered to be the main/proper Himalayan Mountain. The main Himalayan range consists of the following three divisions:
a) Himadri/Inner/Great Himalaya
b) Lesser/Himachal/Middle Himalaya
c) Outer/Siwalik/Sub Himalaya Foot Hills
The Himadri /Great Himalaya: These are the northernmost section of the main Himalayan block and in its highest section has an average height of 6000 meters. This section of Himalaya serves as the effective barrier for the monsoon wind emanating from the Bay of Bengal. Thus, serving as the orographic divide (Figure no.2). North of the Himadari lies the cold-arid landscape of the Trans-Himalayan world while the valleys on the southern slopes of the Himadri are verdant green which showcases distinct socio-economic personality than that of trans-Himalaya. With a steeper slope on the south than north, average width of the Himadari is about150 Kilometres. This section of the Himalaya is most continuous; running from Indus gorge near Nanga Parbat in the west to the valley of Dihang close to the Namcha Barwa peak in the east. These mountains have a core of granite which is flanked by metamorphosed sedimentary rocks such as graphite, gneiss and schists.
Figure No.2: The Himalayas as orographic Barrier .
Some of the prominent peaks of the Himadri range of the Himalaya are as follows: Mt. Everest(Nepal-China), Mt Khangchendzonga (Sikkim-Nepal), Mt. Nuptse (Nepal), Mt. Amadablam (Nepal), Mt. Annapurna (Nepal), Mt. Makalu (Nepal), Mt. Dhaulagiri (Nepal), Mt. Nandadevi (Uttarakhand), Mt. Reo-purgeol(Himachal Pradesh), Mt. Chomolhari (Bhutan), Kangto (Arunachal Pradesh) etc.
Mountain passes have always been important anthropologically. Being the lowest point on a ridge connecting two valleys, these passes traditionally served as the seasonal conduit corridors for peopling in and across the Himalaya and connected the valleys and pastures of different ecological zones across different ridges. Following are some the important passes in the Himadari range: Burzil, Zojila (J&K), Bara-Lachala, Shipkila, Kalicho (Himachal Pradesh), Thagala, Nitila, Lipu-lekhla (Uttarakhand), Nathula, Jelepla, Khangla, Dokala (Sikkim), Sela, Bomdila, Bumla (Arunachal Pardesh).
The Lesser/Middle/Himachal Himalaya: It is most intricate and rugged section of the Himalaya which has average height of 3700-4500 meters and average width of 80 kilometers. The lesser Himalaya are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks, varying in age from the algonkian to Eocene. The northern slopes in this section of the Himalaya are gentler. Following are the important mountain ranges of this section of the Himalaya: Pir-panjal Range (J&K), Dhauladhar Range (Himachal Pardesh), Nag-Tibba Range (Garhwal, Uttarakhand), Mahabharata Range (Nepal), Mussorie Range (Uttarakhand). Out of these ranges, pir-panjal are by far the longest with an extent of about 400 kilometers. Most of the important hill stations such as Shimla, Chail, Ranikhet, Mussorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling etc. belong to these mountain ranges. Incidentally most of these important hill stations have been important colonial towns as well.
Banihal, Pir-panjal (J&K), Rohtang, Buran (Himachal Pradesh), Rupinla ( Uttarakhand) are some of the important passes of the middle Himalaya. These ranges are largely composed of metamorphic and unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks such as slate, limestone, quartz etc.
The slopes of these mountain ranges have traditionally been quite significant both ecologically and economically by supporting animal rearing traditionally nomadic communities such as Gaddis (Himachal Pradesh & J & K), Gujjars (J & K), Pangwals (Himachal Pradesh), Drokpas (Sikkim & Tibet), Brokpas (J & K) and other pastoral communities such as Kinnaura (Himachal Pradesh), Lahaulas (Himachal Pradesh), Jaunsari (Uttaranchal), Garhwalis (Uttaranchal), Lepchas (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Limbus (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Sherpas (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal), Bhutias (Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nepal, Tibet), Monpas (Arunachal Pradesh), Nyshi (Arunachal Pradesh), Adis (Arunachal) Pradesh), Mishmis (Arunachal) Pradesh) etc., which relied a great deal on rearing domestic. The grasslands in this section has been known as murg in Kashmir, thach and kanda in Himachal and bugyial and payar in Uttarakhand.
Photo: Runang-Kanda in Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh
The Siwalik/ Sub Himalayan Foot Hills/Outer Himalaya: This section of the Himalaya prominently extends from potwar basin in the west to the kosi river in the east. Subsequently, this section of the Himalaya continues eastward in a highly discontinuous fashion. It has an average height of about 900-1200 meters above mean sea-level with varying degree of width in the western and eastern section. The width of this mountain range varies between 10 to 50 kilometres.
The Siwaliks are the most dissected section of the Himalaya due to the cris-crossing of various Himalayan rivers. The valleys separting these ranges from the middle Hiamlaya are the zones where duns (in west) and duars (in east are located). Examples of such duns are Udhampur, Kotli in Jammu region and Kota, Potli, Dehradun, Chaukhamba etc in Uttarakhand. Anthropologically, these duns and duars have been significant because of bein the transition zone where vibrant social interactions took place between highlanders and lowland economies.
Fig. Altitudinal gradations and ecological settings of the Himalayas.
As the varying degrees of slopes and altitude leads to different soil formation and erosion factors including different degree of pressure and temperature, the mountains are known for varying ecological set-ups over short distances. Social and economic personality of any place depends on the prevailing environmental conditions. Thus, the ecological settings of the Himalayas depends upon the altitudinal gradations the mountain system which in turn imparts it distinct social and economic personality.
On the basis of altitudinal variations and resultant ecological set-ups, the Himalayas are categorised in the following six ecological zones:
Figure No: 3
i. Tropical Moist Himalayan Zones (between 300 to 900 meters above mean sea level)
ii. Sub-tropical Humid Himalayan Zone (between 900 to 1500 meters above mean sea level)
iii. Semi-temperate Himalayan Zone (between 1500 to 2000 meters above mean sea level)
iv. Temperate Himalayan Zones (between 2000 to 3000metersabove mean sea level)
v. Alpine Snow Forest Zone (between 3000 to 4500metersabove mean sea level)
vi. Alpine Meadows/Tundra (between 4500 to 6000metersabove mean sea level)
vii. Arctic (Above 6000 metersabove mean sea level). As this zone largely lies in permanent snow bound conditions, it is beyond agro-economic zones.
Based on the above ecological zones which determined the carrying capacity and agricultural potentials of different zones, five distinct types of agro-economic activity zones were categorised. These economic activity zones were closely associated with various ethnic groups in the Himalayas and are as follows:
a) Specialised Pastoralism:
b) Mixed Agro-Pastoralism
c) Cereal Based Farming System
d) Shifting Agriculture
e) Specialised Commercial System
The zone of specialised Pastoralism has been confined largely to the Himalyan highland (High Altitudinal Areas) of altitude ranging between 3000-6000 meters above mean sea level. Brokpas, Changpas of ladakh, Lahaulas, Kinnaurs and Gaddis Himachal Pradesh Pradesh along with them Drokpas of Sikkim and Monpas of Arunachal Pardesh have traditionally been under this zone for long. These pastoralists have been herding yaks, sheeps, goats along with horses and mules as the mainstay of their economy while periodically moving primarily in the trans-Himalayan zone.
Incidentally, this zone has predominance of Lamaistic Buddhism and predominance of Tibetan culture with predominance of mongoloid stock of people across the entire length of the Himalayas.
Mixed agro-pastrolism has been confined to mid-altitudinal areas which range between 1500 to 3000 meters. This has been a sedentary economic zones where people combined sedentary cultivation along with animal herding. Lager part of Himachal Pradesh including lower Kinnaur, Kashmir valley regions and neighbouring areas as Uttaranchal in the western Himalaya and Sikkim and considerable chunk of Arunchal Pradesh falls under this categories where people primarily reared goats and sheeps among smaller domestic animals while cows, buffaloes among the bigger cattle. In addition to these people reared mithuns as well in Arunachal Pradesh.
Photo: Himalayan Community: a & b: Ladakhi of Jammu & Kashmir, c: Pangwal of Himachal Pradesh, d: Lepcha of Sikkim, e: Monpa of Arunachal Pradesh, f & g: Kinnaura of Himachal Pradesh, h: Idu-Mishmi of Arunachal Pardesh.
Cereal based hill farming has been confined to a zone of low to mid altitudinal areas where wet paddy cultivation has been widespread along with other cereal crops.
Shifting agriculture is a practice of cultivation where fields are tilled temporarily only for few years owing to declining soil fertility; three to 5 years on an average. Subsequently, agricultural fields are abandoned and a new plot is carved out while the previous ones are left to get back to their natural vegetation. Till recent decades shifting Cultivation prevalent in the low altitudinal regions of the Eastern Himalayas and its foot hills. Thus, it used to be part of the Tropical Moist Himalayan Zones and Sub-tropical Humid Himalayan Zone.
Specialised Commercial system has traditionally been confined to low altitudinal to mid-altitudinal areas. It has basically been monoculture practice. These are best represented by plantation agriculture and have been largely present in the Eastern Himalayan region of Sikkim, Darjeeling and Arunchal Pradesh while only a smaller are areas from the western Himalayas exhibits this form of agro-economic zones. The examples of the tea, Cinchona and cardamom plantations are the prominent examples of this zone where some of the prominent community residing are Lepcha, Bhutias, Sherpa, Gurung, Limbus, Rai, Magars etc. The horticultural mission has extended specialised commercial agriculture to even mid-altitudinal and high altitudinal areas. This has happened quite prominently with apple plantations in kinnaur, Chamba, Shimla, Lahaul & spiti and Kullu districts of Himachal as well as a smaller tract in Arunchal Pradesh where driving horticultural crops have been apple, oranges and Kiwis. The Specialised Commercial agriculture has not only employed the indigenous communities but has also introduced some of the indigenous communities from the chhotanagpur plateau areas to the Tea and cinchona plantations in the eastern Himalayan regions during colonial times. These tribes are often interchangeably referred to as tea-tribes or Adivasi. These are Santhal, Munda, Ho, Oraons etc tribes. These ethnic groups are largely confined to low altitudinal areas and foot-hills of Himalayas.
The peopling of Himalaya can best be comprehended taking the cultural regions in consideration.
Entire Himalayas can be broadly categorized into the following four cultural regions:
a) Lamaistic Buddhism (Pre-dominence of Tibetan Culture)
b) Indic or Hindu Culture
c) Transition/ Intermediate Zone between Lamaistic Buddhism and Hindu Culture
d) Islamic Culture
Source: http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a02e/80A02E07.gif
With exception of Islamic culture, these remaining three cultural zones by an large follows the general schemes of ecological and altitudinal zonation of the Himalayas. Lamaistic Culture is predominant largely in the entire extending of the trans-Himalayas and in considerable portion of the Great Himalyan Range, more so on its northern slopes. This zone lies in high altitudinal areas with prevalence of cold-arid conditions. Spitians, Ladakhis, Lahaulas, Kinnaura (Upper Kinnaur), Bhotias, Drokpas, Drukpas, Brokpas, Sherpas, Monpas are some of the prominent communities of this cultural zone.
The southern slopes of the Great Himalyan ranges as well the pir-panjal, Dhauladhar, Mahabharat ranges etc. lying in the high to mid-altitudinal zones. This cultural area is basically a transition zone. Kinnaura, Lahuala, Pangwal, Gaddi, Tamang, Gurungs etc communities reside in this cultural zone who exhibit a mix of both Hindu practices and Lamaistic Buddhism is evident. This zone can largely be traced in the Temperate Himalayan Zone.
Fig. Monks in the Pin Valley of Spiti, Himachal Pradesh
Lastly, the Indic or the Hindu Cultural zone is largely predominant from the Tropical Moist Cultural Zone to Semi-temperate Cultural zones upto about 2000 meters in the Himalayas. Islamic cultural israther an exception in terms of location as it lies beyond the ecological altitudinal profiling of the Himalayas but in smaller section of western Himalayas in Jammu & Kashmir.
Summary
Owing to the episodic orogeny, the Himalaya has been a mountain system of great altitudinal variations and physiographic diversity. However, rather than being the impenetrable fortress, the Himalayas have always been the zone of interactions physiographic, socio-cultural and economic traits. Its orogeny from the collision of the Asian and Eurasian plates and subsequent rise made it the gateway to central-Asia and beyond. This resulted in bidirectional movement of men and materials and while imparting it a distinct bio-cultural identity.
Higher altitudinal areas of the Himalayas have traditionally been less pluralistic with inclination towards being bi-religious. The two religious groups Buddhism and Hinduism often coexist in juxtaposed manner as they often trace rather similar identities, which have their common roots in the indigenous traditions dress, food habits, language and ethnicity etc. where environment continue to play deterministic role.
Religion commands a greater importance in the trans-Himalyan and great Himalyan regions like ladakha, Lahual & Spiti, Kinnaur, North Sikkim and Tawang area of Arunachal Pradesh where forces of Nature play more conspicuous role. Either local deities are trusted to govern the forces of Nature or natural elements are revered as deities. Almost every festival is scheduled according to climatic pattern and every work of significance is carried with prior blessing of local deity. No matter how the modern world perceives the belief system of these mountain people, it cannot be contested that religion has been successfully imparting confidence in people to venture out far and wide for existence amid the challenging environmental conditions.
The economic prosperity and integration with rest of the country has lessened the hold of local deities to some extent. Nevertheless, highlanders are still remains deeply religious and more in sync with their immediate ecological settings than the places of lower altitude.
| you can view video on The Himalayas: Socio biological aspects -environmental case studies | |
- Bose, Nirmal Kumar (1973). Some Indian Tribes; India–The Land Of People. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
- Chandra, Ramesh (1981). ‘Ecology and Religion of the Kinner: Mountain Dwellers of North-Western Himalayas’, in R.S. Mann (ed.) (1981). Nature-Man-Spirit Complex in Tribal India, pp.269-297. Delhi: L.P. Concept Publication.
- Chandra, Ramesh (1992). Highlanders of North Western Himalayas. (Tribal studies of India Series T153). New Delhi: Inter-India Publications.
- Fonia, Ramnath Singh (1991). ‘Socio-economic and Cultural Study of Western Himalayas during
- Early Medieval and Medieval Times’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Centre for Historical Studies,
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
- Goldstein, Meylvn C. and P. Tsarang (1987). ‘De-Encapsulation and Change in Ladakh’ in M.K.
- Raha (ed.), The Himalayan Heritage, pp. 456–468. New Delhi: Gian Publishing House.
- Hussain, S. Abid (1978). India: The Land and the People–The National Culture of India. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
- Kuldev (1984). ‘Lahul and Spiti–Socio-economic Structure and Hierarchy of Settlements.’
- Unpublished M.phil Dissertation. Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
- Raha, M. K. (1992). ‘Economic Strategies, Religious Dualism and Change in Diverse Cultural and Ecological Settings: A Case from The Western Himalayas’, in M.K. Raha and P.C. Kumar (eds)
- (1992). The Himalayas and the Himalayans (Studies on Ecology, Biology and Culture), pp. 24–48. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India.
- Raha, M.K. and S.N. Mahto (1985). Kinnaurese of the Himalayas. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India.
- Raha, M.K., J.C. Das and J. Singh (1992). ‘Rural Life in the Himalayas: An Analytical Exposition of a Garhwali and a Kinnauri Village’, in M.K. Raha and P.C. Kumar (eds) (1992). The Himalayas and the Himalayans (Studies on Ecology, Biology and Culture), pp. 510–517. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India.
- Sanan Deepak and Dhanu Swati (1998). Exploring Kinnaur and Spiti in the Trans-Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company
- Shahnawaz (1999). ‘Environment Development Interface in a Semi-closed Environment: A Case Study of Pangi Valley’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
- Warpa, V. (2007). ‘Environmental Constraints on Agricultural Economy in the High Altitude Region of Lahaul-Spiti’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Centre for the Study of Regional
- Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi