33 Impact of Urbanization on Man

Nisha Thapa

    Contents:

1.      Introduction

2.      Urbanization

3.      Growth of Urban Human Habitat

4.      Impact of Urbanization on Mental Health

5.      Negative Impact of Urbanization

6.      Summary

Learning objectives:

After reading this module, you will be able to understand:

• The process of Urbanization.
• The impact of urbanization on humans.
• About the different issues of urbanization.
• The given module also looks at the different factors that effects the health of human beings due to urbanization

    Introduction

Urbanization is a process by which people, instead of living in predominantly dispersed agricultural villages, start living in towns and cities dominated by industrial and service functions. It involves multiplication of urban places and or an increase in the size of existing cities. Growth of urban population is only one of the dimensions of urbanization. (Ahuja, 2010)

Today, urban anthropology distinguishes itself from urban sociology mainly in terms of a different perspective: while sociological studies are more focused on fragmented issues, urban anthropology is theoretical and rather directed toward a holistic approach. Urban anthropology in the 1960s and 70s was focused on particular issues, for example migration, kinship, poverty and so forth, derived from or contrasted to traditional-based fieldwork, by the 1980s, they had expanded their interests to any aspect of urban life. As a result, urban anthropology became more integrated into the discourse of the other social sciences.

Practically, urban anthropology has emerged to a major part with sociology, ecology and other disciplines. Along with the theoretical interest in conceptualization of urban space and urbanism, contemporary issues of urban anthropology are: urban problems, rural-urban migration, adaptation and adjustment of humans in densely populated environments, the effects of urban settings upon cultural pluralism and social stratification, social networks, the function of kinship, growth of cities, crimes and other urban dilemmas, housing, architecture, transport, use of space, employment, infrastructure, demography and others. (Gyabaah, 2003)

Urbanization

Urbanization, simply defined as a radical shift from a rural to an urban society, is an essential corollary of industrialization that goes hand in hand with the role of human settlements as engines of growth in the economy and as promoters of scientific, socio-cultural and technological development.

As the modern world becomes more and more urbanized, with more and more people moving to and living in cities, the quality of the environment of the human habitat has suffered. To put it bluntly, urbanization has led to environmental degradation which in turn has generated environmental risks, hazards and disasters. The fact is when a large percentage of the humans lives in cities of which the environment is man-made, humans as well as the artificial environment consume large quantities of resources which has an impact on the city as well as its hinterland (example, huge ecological footprints), problems with wastes disposal, and environmental pollution and degradation of quality of life. There is no doubt that there is considerable impact of the built environment of a human habitat on human health.

The 21st century is a century of urbanization as more and more people move to cities and make their homes there. The city is invariably attractive as a human habitat. Urbanization is described as a process involving the physical growth of cities and urban areas. It is also a process involving migration as people move from rural to urban areas with population growth almost equal to the rate of rural-urban migration. Urbanization is also a process that is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. People move to cities due to better opportunities for jobs, education, housing, business, and other socio-economic gains. City folks also have the advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Living in megacities has economic, social and other benefits but equally, it has risks and hazards. Growth of urban human habitat

It is ironical that the growth of human habitats is achieved at the expense of the natural habitat destruction. Natural habitat destruction is a process by which natural habitats such as forests are damaged irreversibly and rendered functionally unstable to the extent that they are unable to support natural species of flora and fauna inhabiting them. During the process of human habitat expansion which replaced natural habitats, the organisms which previously inhabit the site are dispersed or destroyed, leading to loss of biodiversity. In a way, we can say that expansion of human habitats create habitats for humans at the expense of natural habitats and their inhabitants. Furthermore, natural habitat destruction by human activities is carried out also for the purpose of natural resources exploitation, food production (agriculture), industrial production (includes pharmaceutical) and for urbanization. In most developing countries, deforestation (clearing natural habitats) is for urbanization and agriculture. This includes Malaysia, which is a good example of a rapidly developing country where the impacts on the environment are significant. The environment effects of natural habitat destruction are environmental pollution, species extinction, climate change, ecological imbalance and environmental hazards or disasters. Additionally, natural habitat destruction also causes “loss of water resources, poor air quality, soil erosion, and land destruction, and degradation of other environmental quality that diminishes quality of life”.

Modern humans and the proliferation of their habitats have significantly impacted upon and changed the environment, often leading to environmental hazards that can exacerbate into disasters. Urban geographers have for long studied urbanization in the sub-field of urban geography that is the study of urban areas. According to Jamaluddin Md Jahi et al. (2009), there is interaction between various components of the environment viz; the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere which are all independent in a symbiotic manner. When one component falls, the others cannot function effectively as it is vital to achieve dynamic equilibrium between the components to ensure environmental stability (Weng, 2010).

Now, if we see in context to urbanization and mental health. Urbanization brings with it a unique set of advantages and disadvantages. This demographic transition is accompanied by economic growth and industrialization, and by profound changes in social organization and the pattern of family life. Urbanization affects mental health through the influence of increased stressors and factors such as overcrowded and polluted environment, high levels of violence, and reduced social support.

Movement of population to urban areas has led to large number of older men and women left to look after themselves in the rural areas, while the young generation lives in the cities for livelihood. This also leads to less availability of caregivers for old people.

Impact of urbanization on mental health

Impact of urbanization is associated with an increase in mental disorders. The reason is that movement of people to urban area needs more facilities to be made available and infrastructure to grow. This does not happen in alignment with the increase of population. Hence, lack of adequate infrastructure increases the risk of poverty and exposure to environmental adversities. Further this also decreases among women (Patel et al., 2003; Ricardo et al, 2007). Increase of nuclear families in urban society has led to increase in cases of violence against women in general. Among them, intimate-partner violence links to alcohol abuse and women’s mental health. Analysis of community based data from eight urban areas in the developing world indicates that mental and physical abuse of women by their partners is distressingly common with negative consequence for women’s physical and psychological well being (Heise et al 1994). Poverty and mental health have a complex and multidimensional relationship. Urbanization leads to forming set of group as “fringe population” who earn on daily basis (Islam et al., 2006). An Indian study in a slum community north of Mumbai indicates high incidence of alcoholism among men and verbal abuse of women by their husbands. The World Health Organization (2005) analysis also documented a close association between the experience of violence and women’s mental health. Women are particularly vulnerable and they often disproportionately bear the burden of changes associated with urbanization.

The model of cultural transformation especially from rural to modern society is considered to be one of the reasons of psychological disorder. However stress caused by transition from rural culture to urban culture cannot be denied as one of the factors leading to stress- related problems. Cultural factors interplay with urban dynamics in a unique manner. Understanding how cultural dynamics articulate with adaptation to urban life may facilitate proper management of mental disorders in cities. In the assessment and treatment of patients living in urban areas, contextual cultural factors also play an important role.

Negative impact of urbanization

Within the purview of negative impact of urbanization we can find that: Firstly, as urban areas grow, demand for land for housing, agriculture and urban infrastructure increases leading to increased pressure on farmlands, forests and water resources. Secondly, rapid urbanization accelerates desertification and environmental change, leading to water scarcity, soil-erosion, and climate change. A prosperous urban centre provides a number of benefits and contribute to poverty alleviation through the provision of:

• Markets for agricultural and industrial goods
• Financial resources
• Employment opportunities for agricultural and industrial activities
• Resources and capacities for government and politics
• Centres for artistic, scientific and technological innovations and of culture and education a wide range of cost-effective services including health and education.(Srivastava, 2012)

Fig 1: pollution as one of the impact of Urbanization

(Source: www.yourarticlelibrary.com)

Fig 2: the growth in slums due to Urbanization

(Source: www.tecnologystudent.com)

Fig 3: soil Pollution

(Source: http://oneplanetsuatanibility.files.wordpress.com)

Summary

Human habitats have come a long way since Homo sapiens lived in caves. However, humans now have a tendency to prefer living in urban habitats. Hence, rapid urbanization and the incessant expansion of megacities with very dense populations are among the most significant transformations of the 21st century. Urban human habitats have hitherto been blamed for all the environmental woes in urban areas as many cities, especially in developing countries, continue this trend of degrading the environment. However, human habitats need not necessarily produce only negative effects on the environment. In an age of sustainable development, green technology, educated and environmentally sensitized human populations, urban human habitats can hold great promise for the protection, conservation and wise use of the world’s natural resources. This is because urban habitats have the ability to support huge populations and hence can effectively limit their impact on the natural environment. As more than half of humanity now lives in urban areas, urban human settlements should therefore be at the centre of concern for sustainable development. Urban habitats are essential for social and economic progress and, increasingly plays a pivotal role in environmental protection in order to ensure a good quality of life for urban dwellers. Urban areas depend on their rural counterparts for food, water and other resources, humans are living in an increasingly interdependent world, and it is crucial not to degrade the environment on which both urban and rural populations depend on.

Urban population growth is both due to migration of people to towns and cities from the rural areas in search of better opportunities as well as population growth within cities.

As a town grows into a city, it not only spreads outwards into the surrounding agricultural lands or natural areas such as forests, grasslands and wetlands, but also grows skywards with high-rise buildings. The town often loses its open spaces and green cover unless consciously preserved leading to the destruction of the quality of life in urban areas.

Good urban planning is essential for rational land use, for upgrading slum areas, improving water supply and drainage systems, providing adequate sanitation, developing effective waste water treatment plants and an efficient public transport system.

Thus, there is need to create awareness about mental illness across all sections of the society due the effect of urbanization. Urbanization is thus seen as a natural corollary of growth. Awareness about its impact on health and more so on mental health will act as a facilitator of change in growing Indian economy (Bharucha, 2008).

    References

• Araya Ricardo et.al (2007) Treating depression in Primary care in low-Income women. Santiaga: chile
• Bharucha Erach (2008) Textbook of environmental studies. Delhi: universities press (India) private Limited.
• Gyabaah Nsiah (2003) Urbanization, Environmental degradation and Food security in Africa. Available from www.http://research community, Canada [Accessed: 29th March 2016.
• Heise Lori. L et.al (1994)Violence against women: A neglected public: Avaialble from: www.http:// health issue in less developed countries. [Accessed: 17th March 2016].
• Islam Mursaleena, Mongometry Mark. R and Taneja Sivani (2000) Urban health and care seeking behaviour. Available from: www.http://case study of slums in India and the Philippines[Accessed:20th March 2016]
• Jamaluddin Md. Jahi, Kadaruddin Aiyub, Kadir Arifin and Azahan Awang (2009) Development, environmental degradation and environmental management in Malaysia. Available from: www.http:// European journal of social sciences. [Accessed: 19th April 2016].
• Patel Vikram (2001) Povety, inequality and mental health in developing country. Oxford: Oxford university press.
• Srivastava K (2012). Urbanization and mental health, Editorial, Ind Psychiatry JAvailable from: www.http://industrial psychiatry.org [ Accessed: 19th March 2016].
• Weng Chan Ngai (2010) Impacts of human habitat development on the environment: challenges and the way forward. Available from: www.http://Malaysian journal of environmental management. [ Accessed: 19th March 2016].
• World Health organization (2005) World health organization multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women.[ Accessed: 20th March 2016

    Suggested Readings

• Aggarwal, S., & Butsch, C. 2012. Environmental and ecological threats in Indian mega-cities. In M. Richter & U. Weiland (Eds.), Applied urban ecology: A global framework . Chichester: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
• Armstrong, W and Mcgee T.G 1985.Theatres of Accumulation: Studies in Asian and Latin American Urbanization. London: Methuen.
• Dasgupta, Malabika..2001.Environmental Impact of Tribal Agriculture in the Northeast Today. Journal of the Anthropological Society. Vol.36.
• Geruson, R. T., & McGrath, D. 1977. Cities and urbanization. New York: Praeger Publishers.
• Gopal, D. 2011. Flora in slums of Bangalore, India: Ecological and socio-cultural perspectives. Master of science thesis, Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald
• Hawley, Amos H. 1981. Urban society: An ecological approach, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. Hawley, Amos H. 1986. Human ecology: A theoretical essay. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Istock, C., Rees, W., & Stearns, F. 1974. Towards the urban ecosystem. In F. Stearns, & T. Montag (Eds.), The urban ecosystem: A holistic approach (pp. 15-31). Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc
• King, A. D. 2007. Colonial urban development . London/New York: Routledge Library Editions
• Marcotullio, P. J., Braimoh, A. K., & Onishi, T. 2008. The impact of urbanization on soils. In A. K. Braimoh, & P. L. G. Vlek (Eds.), Land use and soil resources (pp. 201-250). Sweden: Springer.
• McKinney, M. L. 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience, 52(10), 883-890
• Nagendra, H., Nagendran, S., Paul, S., & Pareeth, S. 2012. Graying, greening and fragmentation in the rapidly expanding Indian city of Bangalore. Landscape and Urban Planning, 105 , 400–406.