{"id":287,"date":"2019-03-25T11:00:21","date_gmt":"2019-03-25T11:00:21","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp05.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=287"},"modified":"2019-03-25T11:15:12","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T11:15:12","slug":"migration-and-occupational-shift","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/chapter\/migration-and-occupational-shift\/","title":{"rendered":"Migration and occupational shift"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/C2micH_-kYg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Table of Content<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIntroduction\r\n\r\nOverview of migration in India\r\n\r\nConcepts and Definition\r\n\r\nMotive for migration\r\n\r\n<strong>Solutions to prohibit Migration<\/strong>\r\n\r\nEconomic Impact of Migration\r\n\r\nHealth and Education\r\n\r\nImpact on Source Areas\r\n\r\nRole of Panchayats\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCauses of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Slow Growth of Industrial Sector<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Neglect of small scale and Cottage Industries<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Failure of the Employment Policy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Capital intensive Industries<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pressure of Population Growth<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Utilising resource flows and human capital of emigrants to strengthen development Improvement in the economic, social and political environment in favour of migration<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Summary<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Learning Objective<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To deals with internal and international migration, both of which are large-scale with impacts on economic growth and poverty reduction in many regions of the country.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To classify Concepts and Definition of Migration and Occupational shift<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To focus on the Overview of migration among Indian<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> population<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To explore the formation and emergence of Historical development of migration<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To discuss on development<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of major Causes of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Examines intergenerational &amp; National Migration and occupational mobility among in India population.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In India, three out of four households include a migrant. However despite the large scale of migration in absolute numbers of people involved and India\u2019s long history of population and labour mobility, labour migration has rarely been reliably studied. Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and household behaviour to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development. Moreover, numerous studies\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">show that the process of migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different locations.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">An anthropological approach, which is both diachronic and synchronic; includes a consideration of all aspects of people's social, economic and cultural life including the social habits of the human population; it not only includes the ways in which people in any society live but also how it is affected on the level by everything that is going on in the regional, national and international arena. Globalization of human capital through international migration is no longer about global physical presence only; it is also about global applicability of skills across various fields of specialization. This marks the main characteristics of skilled migration from India to developed countries in the twenty-first century. The focus is shifting away from professionals in specific occupations, like doctors, engineers, scientists, architects, bankers, to information technology professionals embodying, in a way, more generic skills.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Overview of Migration in India<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are very few studies of occupational mobility in India, mainly because there are very few sources of data on the subject Migration and Occupational shift. There are many studies, covering developed and less-developed countries that have documented the persistence of economic and social inequalities across generations based on outcome indicators such as income, earnings, occupation, and level of education. In the literature on social mobility, occupation is considered a good indicator of social status, incomes, and living standards. A low degree of intergenerational occupational mobility implies that the advantages and disadvantages inherent in the occupational status of one generation are transmitted to the next generation. A situation of low mobility across generations may be <\/span>favourable<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> for families that are in fortunate socio-economic circumstances, but in the case of families that are less fortunate, low mobility often entails \u201csocial exclusion, material and human capital impoverishment, and restrictions on the opportunities and expectations that would otherwise widen their capability to make choices\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are further reasons why intergenerational occupational mobility in rural India should be of particular interest to social scientists and policy makers. Rural India is marked by extreme forms of social and economic inequality, and in particular by a variety of forms of caste discrimination. The study of occupational mobility can help identify the extent to which the process of economic development and <\/span>modernisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has broken traditional hierarchies and caste and class barriers to occupational choice. Given the relatively limited employment opportunities available within villages, the main vehicle for intergenerational occupational mobility in India is <\/span>migration<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to urban or semi-urban areas. At the same time, since 69 <\/span>per cent<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of India\u2019s population still lives in villages, it is important to examine and understand the level of intergenerational occupational mobility within villages themselves.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concepts and Definition<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi permanent residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of \"semi permanent residence\" would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm <\/span>labourers<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. Migration, sociological studies of Migration involves the (more or less) permanent movement of individuals or groups across symbolic or political boundaries into new residential areas and communities. Sociological studies of migration are diverse and usually form part of larger problems in (for example) research into kinship, social networks, or economic development. It is conventional to distinguish push from pull factors in the analysis of migration. The former<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(for example high rates of unemployment in the area of origin) are usually viewed as inducing migration of a conservative, security-maximizing nature, while the latter (economic expansion in the host country or region) are said to encourage risk-taking and income-maximizing migration.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There is a considerable literature on rural-urban migration in developing countries, and this has confirmed the importance of family and friends in the destination area, as an explanatory variable for the rate of migration out of particular areas of origin. Money through government doles and relief cannot solve the problem of small-farm viability. But there is no salvation at all for the landless rural poor, who migrate to urban areas to occupy slums. Seasonal migration changes to permanent migration. It is estimated that the metros are swelling with a daily influx of people, with somewhat less into large and small cities and towns. Thus the suffering of both rural and urban slum populations is compounded, making for the typical lose-lose situation. They do not need or want pity. What they want is a fighting chance to live in dignity, even if poor. That can only be provided by <\/span>proactive<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> change in the present wrong agricultural policy that is at the root of the problem.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Motive for migration<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The primary motive for migration, recorded by the census is an important indicator of how mobility is influenced by conditions:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Changed place of residence,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Moved for employment reasons and<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Business motives<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Technology-driven industrialisation has necessarily caused a shift in human values, certainly among those sections of society that have benefited from industrialisation in India. Such people speak and think about liberty and freedom without stopping to think whether there are others who cannot even dream of those desirable conditions of \u201clife, liberty and the pursuit of happiness\u201d. The freedom they seek is to \u201cconsume\u201d without the responsibility of leaving something for others, or regenerating resources or even a thought for the resources for generations as yet unborn.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Solutions to prohibit Migration<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There are so many things new about the study of man by man through the scientific approach on the origins, the behaviour and the physical, social, cultural development of humans. Anthropologists using cultural perspective to understand patterns view human populations as biological as well as cultural entities. In short, anthropologists of one kind or another are liable to investigate almost everything about human beings: our evolution, our genes, our emotions, our behaviours, how people organize their living, our language, our religion, our behaviours and so forth. Is there at all a solution for this situation? But before looking for solutions, the causes of the problem need to be understood. The main causes are:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>No land or poor land due to neglected land reforms,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Farmers\u2019 food-security being based on the market by purchasing food for himself through income earned by sale<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of his farm produce,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Agricultural policy encouraging cash-crops rather than food crops, or marketable, water-intensive food crops rather than rain-fed food crops,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Neglect of rural agricultural water-security by neglect of localised<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> watershed management,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Soil erosion due to deforestation,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Loss of soil fertility due to continued use of chemical fertilisers<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and pesticides,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lack of micro-credit to farmers,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Industry-based high-input-cost technologies in farming including \u201chigh-yield\u201d, water-demanding seed, instead of sustainable organic methods, and caste-based limitations to cooperation between farmers.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0These main causes have a self-evident set of solutions, which will reduce the seasonal and permanent migration of rural people to urban centres. People who migrate to urban centres need jobs (employment) and this causes the government to attempt to create more jobs by further industrialisation. Sensible solutions to the causes of today\u2019s farmers\u2019 crisis situation will not only largely relieve the government of the need to \u201cprovide jobs\u201d since rural people will have occupations that will keep them independent and working on the land, but will also increase food grain production.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Economic Impact of Migration: <\/strong>At the aggregate level, labour emigration affects the sending country\u2019s economy through its impact on the market, on macro-economic variables (savings, balance of payments and so on), and social relations. These impacts are summarised below.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFour major categories of interventions can be envisaged, which will differ for internal and external migration.\r\n\r\nThese categories relate to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Addressing underdevelopment and improving the synergy between migration and development;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Improving labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> market outcomes;<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ensuring basic entitlements to migrant workers; and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Improving the social and political environment for migration<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0Health and Education: <\/strong>labourers working in harsh circumstances and living in unhygienic conditions suffer from serious occupational health problems and are vulnerable to disease. Those working in quarries, construction sites and mines suffer from various health hazards, mostly lung diseases. As the employer does not follow safety measures, accidents are quite frequent. Migrants cannot access various health and family care programmes due to their temporary status. Free public health care facilities and programmes are not accessible to them. For women workers, there is no provision of maternity leave, forcing them to resume work almost immediately after childbirth. Workers, particularly those working in tile factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such as body ache, sunstroke and skin irritation<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Impact on Source Areas: <\/strong>The major impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes in the labour market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of expenditure and investment. Although seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing out employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a tightening of the labour market in some circumstances. However, empirical evidence from out-migrant areas does not often attest to this. This may be because outmigration often takes place in labour surplus<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Role of Panchayats: <\/strong>Panchayats should emerge as the focus of the resource pool for migrant workers residing in their area. They should maintain a register of migrant workers and issue identity cards and pass books to them. Further, it should be mandatory for recruiters to deposit with the Panchayats a list of the labourers recruited by them along with other employment details. With growing IT based communication; it may become possible for Panchayats or NGOs to maintain a record of potential employers and employees.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Problems Encountered by Migrants:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Problems encountered by the migrant workers may be examined at two levels.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">First in relation to recruitment violations and<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Second\u00a0 in\u00a0 relation\u00a0 to\u00a0 working\u00a0 and\u00a0 living\u00a0 conditions\u00a0 in\u00a0 destination\u00a0 countries;\u00a0 commonly\u00a0 reported violations are delayed deployment or non deployment<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of workers, overcharging or collection of fees\u00a0<\/span>far in excess of authorised<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> placement fees and illegal recruitment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Illegal recruitment is another serious violation of the rules as workers get recruited and deployed overseas without the government knowing about them. Being unlicensed, illegal recruiters are beyond the reach of the normal regulatory machinery of the national overseas employment policy.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Some major problems encountered by the migrants in their countries of employment include:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>premature termination of job contracts,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>changing the clauses of contract<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to the disadvantage of the workers,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>delay in payment of salary,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>violation of minimum wage standards,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>freezing of fringe benefits and other perks,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>forced over-time work without returns and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>denial of permission to keep one\u2019s own passport<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0Causes of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India<\/strong>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Slow Growth of Industrial Sector: <\/strong>The cause of stagnancy in occupational pattern is the slow growth of industrial sector especially the manufacturing sector. Thus the slow growth of our industrial sector has kept the occupational pattern traditional.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Neglect of small scale and Cottage<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: The neglect of small scale and cottage industries is the factor responsible for the traditional nature of our occupational pattern. These industries use <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> intensive technique of production. With <\/span>small<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> amount of <\/span>capital<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> these industries can employ more <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Failure of the Employment Policy: <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Another reason for failure to change the occupational pattern was the failure of our employment policy. A review of the employment policy during the last several decades of planning reveals that no serious attempt was made by the Indian planners to develop and diversify the rural economy. The unemployment alleviation programmes could not succeed due to poor management and leakages of <\/span>fund<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. No sincere efforts have been made by planners to develop <\/span>agricultural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sector like road construction, land reclamation, digging of canals etc. Infect planners failed to give emphasis on rural <\/span>industrialisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. As a result occupational structure remained traditional.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Capital intensive Industries<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: Since the beginning of planning the planners gave emphasis on capital intensive heavy industries in the producer goods sector. This had very limited employment generation effects. <\/span>Besides<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there was <\/span>rapid<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> expansion of luxury durable consumer goods industries using capital intensive methods. As a <\/span>result<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there was no shift of surplus <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> from <\/span>agricultural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sector to the industrial sector.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Pressure of Population Growth<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: Rapid growth of population in India is a major cause of the traditional nature of our occupational pattern. Due to <\/span>population<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> explosion, there is <\/span>sharp<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> increase <\/span>of<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> our work force especially in <\/span>rural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> part of the country. <\/span>Generally<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> more than <\/span>two thirds<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of increased <\/span>labour joins labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> force. Lack of <\/span>alternative<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> source of employment in <\/span>agriculture,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> leads to disguised employment and underemployment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Financing outmigration: <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It would also be worth establishing a government system of offering <\/span>low interest<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> loans to less well-off emigrants to finance outmigration. Such a system of financing out migration may also ensure that those emigrants availing the <\/span>low interest<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> loans would resort to formal banking channels to transfer their remittances back home. This would further augment the foreign exchange resources, which are vital for a developing country like India.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0Utilising resource flows and human capital of emigrants to strengthen development<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There is an absence of any policy framework regarding the effective utilisation of financial inflows from emigrants to strengthen the development process at national or state levels. Similarly, the existing policy regime in India hardly addresses any concerns related to the migration of persons with technical or professional expertise, many of whom are willing to make a contribution to the development process, either in their non-resident status or as returnees. These issues need close consideration at national and regional levels and effective policies need to be formulated which can integrate development concerns with the migration process A focused approach is required to ensure that the basic entitlements of the poor to food, elementary education, basic health are fulfilled, as also their entitlement to other government programmes and subsidies.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Improvement in the economic, social and political environment in favour of migration<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Disadvantages faced by poor migrants are accentuated because of their low political voice in source and destination areas; because they often comprise a distinct ethnic, social or cultural group, and are seen to be threatening to the livelihoods of workers in the destination areas. As a consequence, they can be victims of strong prejudices. There is, thus a role for advocacy to remove stereotypes and misapprehensions and for a campaign to buttress the voices of poor migrants. In the case of Indian emigrants and people of Indian origin, it is critical to address how they can participate in selected but specific developmental activities. Another significant issue is the identification of possible ways in which human capital can return to India and, having returned, can contribute to the development process.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Summary<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists provide information about communities that help agencies adapt projects to conditions and needs. Thus an anthropological perspective on issues of human development is cross-cultural, and includes an examination of the present social, political and economical theology of globalization, with a clearly articulated emphasis on the context-appropriate rebuilding or retention of economies, with a view toward the protection of the environment, the preservation of cultural diversity, and the empowerment of communities and their members. In India, three out of four households include a migrant. However despite the large scale of migration in absolute numbers of people involved and India\u2019s long history of population and labour mobility, labour migration has rarely been reliably studied. Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There is <\/span>extensive<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that <\/span>emphasise<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> individual rationality and household <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development. Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different locations.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These issues need close consideration at national and regional levels and effective policies need to be formulated which can integrate development concerns with the migration process A focused approach is required to ensure that the basic entitlements of the poor to food, elementary education, basic health are fulfilled, as also their entitlement to other government programmes and subsidies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>you can view video on Migration and occupational shift<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/C2micH_-kYg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Know More \/ Web Resources<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>SUGGESTED READING<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1993). Migrant Labour in Quarries and Brickkilns: An Overview. Surat, India: Centre for Social Studies [mimeo].<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994a). Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Centre for Social Studies (1990). Report of the Study Group on Migrant Labour. Surat, India: National Commission on Rural Labour.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chandra, N. and Singh, C.S.K. (1983). Working Condition of Brick-Kiln Workers. National Labour Institute Bulletin, 9(1).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. ed. (1987). Migrant Labour and Related Issues. Delhi: Oxford and IBH.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lewis, A. (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, May.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Madhavan, M.C. (1985). Indian emigrants: Numbers, characteristics and economic impact. Population and Development Review, 11(3).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Nayyar, D. (1994). Migration, Remittances and Capital Flows: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 REFERENCES<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1984). Labour migration from south and south-east Asia: Some policy issues. International Labour Review, 123(4), July\u2013August.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1992). Contemporary labour migration from Asia: Policies and perspectives of sending countries. In: Kritz, M.M. et al eds. (1992) International Migration Systems: A Global\u00a0 Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1997). Sending Workers Abroad. Geneva: ILO.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. and Yogesh, A. eds. (1986). Middle East Interlude: Asian Workers Abroad. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994a). Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994b). Capital and labour in the cane fields. In: Breman, J. (1994) Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press [originally published in the Journal of Peasant Studies, July 1990].<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1996). Footloose Labour: Working in India\u2019s Informal Sector. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J., Kloos, P. and Saith, A. (1997). The Village in Asia Revisited. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Castles, S. and Miller, M. (1993). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillam.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Centre for Social Studies (1990). Report of the Study Group on Migrant Labour. Surat, India: National Commission on Rural Labour.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chandra, N. and Singh, C.S.K. (1983). Working Condition of Brick-Kiln Workers. National Labour Institute Bulletin, 9(1).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1993). Migrant Labour in Quarries and Brickkilns: An Overview. Surat, India: Centre for Social Studies [mimeo].<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1994). Slums, migrants and the urban informal sector in Surat city. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 37(3).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Eaton, R. (1984). The Rise of Islam and Bengal Frontier. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Eevit, Z. and Zachariah, K.C. (1978). International labour migration. Finance and Development, 15(4).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gill, I. (1984). Migrant labour: A mirror survey of Jullunder and east Champaran. Economic and Political Weekly, June.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gulati, I.S. and Mody, A. (1983). Remittances of Indian Migrants to the Middle East: An Assessment with Reference to Migrants from Kerala. Working Paper No. 182. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Harris, J.R. and Todaro, M.P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two sector analysis. American Economic Review, 60(1), pp. 126\u201338.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. and Joshi, H. (1976). Surplus Labour and the City: A Study of Bombay. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. ed. (1987). Migrant Labour and Related Issues. Delhi: Oxford and IBH.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lewis, A. (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, May.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Madhavan, M.C. (1985). Indian emigrants: Numbers, characteristics and economic impact. Population and Development Review, 11(3).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Nayyar, D. (1994). Migration, Remittances and Capital Flows: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Piore, M.J. (1983). Labor market segmentation: To what paradigm does it belong? American Economic Review, 73(2), pp. 249\u201353.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sasikumar, S.K. (1995a). Trends, pattern and characteristics of Indian labour migration to the Middle East during the twentieth century. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 38(2).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Tinker, H. (1974). A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830\u20131920.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">London: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zachariah, K.C., Mathew, E.T. and Irudaya Rajan, S. (2002b). Consequences of migration: Socioeconomic and demographic dimensions. In: Zachariah, K.C. et al eds. (2002) Kerala\u2019s Gulf Connection CDS Studies on International Labour Migration from Kerala State in India. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala: Centre for Development Studies.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/C2micH_-kYg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Table of Content<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Introduction<\/p>\n<p>Overview of migration in India<\/p>\n<p>Concepts and Definition<\/p>\n<p>Motive for migration<\/p>\n<p><strong>Solutions to prohibit Migration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Economic Impact of Migration<\/p>\n<p>Health and Education<\/p>\n<p>Impact on Source Areas<\/p>\n<p>Role of Panchayats<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Causes of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Slow Growth of Industrial Sector<\/li>\n<li>Neglect of small scale and Cottage Industries<\/li>\n<li>Failure of the Employment Policy<\/li>\n<li>Capital intensive Industries<\/li>\n<li>Pressure of Population Growth<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Utilising resource flows and human capital of emigrants to strengthen development Improvement in the economic, social and political environment in favour of migration<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Learning Objective<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To deals with internal and international migration, both of which are large-scale with impacts on economic growth and poverty reduction in many regions of the country.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To classify Concepts and Definition of Migration and Occupational shift<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To focus on the Overview of migration among Indian<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> population<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To explore the formation and emergence of Historical development of migration<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">To discuss on development<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of major Causes of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Examines intergenerational &amp; National Migration and occupational mobility among in India population.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In India, three out of four households include a migrant. However despite the large scale of migration in absolute numbers of people involved and India\u2019s long history of population and labour mobility, labour migration has rarely been reliably studied. Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and household behaviour to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development. Moreover, numerous studies\u00a0<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">show that the process of migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different locations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">An anthropological approach, which is both diachronic and synchronic; includes a consideration of all aspects of people&#8217;s social, economic and cultural life including the social habits of the human population; it not only includes the ways in which people in any society live but also how it is affected on the level by everything that is going on in the regional, national and international arena. Globalization of human capital through international migration is no longer about global physical presence only; it is also about global applicability of skills across various fields of specialization. This marks the main characteristics of skilled migration from India to developed countries in the twenty-first century. The focus is shifting away from professionals in specific occupations, like doctors, engineers, scientists, architects, bankers, to information technology professionals embodying, in a way, more generic skills.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Overview of Migration in India<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are very few studies of occupational mobility in India, mainly because there are very few sources of data on the subject Migration and Occupational shift. There are many studies, covering developed and less-developed countries that have documented the persistence of economic and social inequalities across generations based on outcome indicators such as income, earnings, occupation, and level of education. In the literature on social mobility, occupation is considered a good indicator of social status, incomes, and living standards. A low degree of intergenerational occupational mobility implies that the advantages and disadvantages inherent in the occupational status of one generation are transmitted to the next generation. A situation of low mobility across generations may be <\/span>favourable<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> for families that are in fortunate socio-economic circumstances, but in the case of families that are less fortunate, low mobility often entails \u201csocial exclusion, material and human capital impoverishment, and restrictions on the opportunities and expectations that would otherwise widen their capability to make choices\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There are further reasons why intergenerational occupational mobility in rural India should be of particular interest to social scientists and policy makers. Rural India is marked by extreme forms of social and economic inequality, and in particular by a variety of forms of caste discrimination. The study of occupational mobility can help identify the extent to which the process of economic development and <\/span>modernisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has broken traditional hierarchies and caste and class barriers to occupational choice. Given the relatively limited employment opportunities available within villages, the main vehicle for intergenerational occupational mobility in India is <\/span>migration<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to urban or semi-urban areas. At the same time, since 69 <\/span>per cent<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of India\u2019s population still lives in villages, it is important to examine and understand the level of intergenerational occupational mobility within villages themselves.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concepts and Definition<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi permanent residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of &#8220;semi permanent residence&#8221; would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm <\/span>labourers<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. Migration, sociological studies of Migration involves the (more or less) permanent movement of individuals or groups across symbolic or political boundaries into new residential areas and communities. Sociological studies of migration are diverse and usually form part of larger problems in (for example) research into kinship, social networks, or economic development. It is conventional to distinguish push from pull factors in the analysis of migration. The former<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(for example high rates of unemployment in the area of origin) are usually viewed as inducing migration of a conservative, security-maximizing nature, while the latter (economic expansion in the host country or region) are said to encourage risk-taking and income-maximizing migration.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There is a considerable literature on rural-urban migration in developing countries, and this has confirmed the importance of family and friends in the destination area, as an explanatory variable for the rate of migration out of particular areas of origin. Money through government doles and relief cannot solve the problem of small-farm viability. But there is no salvation at all for the landless rural poor, who migrate to urban areas to occupy slums. Seasonal migration changes to permanent migration. It is estimated that the metros are swelling with a daily influx of people, with somewhat less into large and small cities and towns. Thus the suffering of both rural and urban slum populations is compounded, making for the typical lose-lose situation. They do not need or want pity. What they want is a fighting chance to live in dignity, even if poor. That can only be provided by <\/span>proactive<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> change in the present wrong agricultural policy that is at the root of the problem.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Motive for migration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The primary motive for migration, recorded by the census is an important indicator of how mobility is influenced by conditions:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Changed place of residence,<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Moved for employment reasons and<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Business motives<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Technology-driven industrialisation has necessarily caused a shift in human values, certainly among those sections of society that have benefited from industrialisation in India. Such people speak and think about liberty and freedom without stopping to think whether there are others who cannot even dream of those desirable conditions of \u201clife, liberty and the pursuit of happiness\u201d. The freedom they seek is to \u201cconsume\u201d without the responsibility of leaving something for others, or regenerating resources or even a thought for the resources for generations as yet unborn.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Solutions to prohibit Migration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There are so many things new about the study of man by man through the scientific approach on the origins, the behaviour and the physical, social, cultural development of humans. Anthropologists using cultural perspective to understand patterns view human populations as biological as well as cultural entities. In short, anthropologists of one kind or another are liable to investigate almost everything about human beings: our evolution, our genes, our emotions, our behaviours, how people organize their living, our language, our religion, our behaviours and so forth. Is there at all a solution for this situation? But before looking for solutions, the causes of the problem need to be understood. The main causes are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>No land or poor land due to neglected land reforms,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Farmers\u2019 food-security being based on the market by purchasing food for himself through income earned by sale<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of his farm produce,<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Agricultural policy encouraging cash-crops rather than food crops, or marketable, water-intensive food crops rather than rain-fed food crops,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Neglect of rural agricultural water-security by neglect of localised<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> watershed management,<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Soil erosion due to deforestation,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Loss of soil fertility due to continued use of chemical fertilisers<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and pesticides,<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lack of micro-credit to farmers,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Industry-based high-input-cost technologies in farming including \u201chigh-yield\u201d, water-demanding seed, instead of sustainable organic methods, and caste-based limitations to cooperation between farmers.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0These main causes have a self-evident set of solutions, which will reduce the seasonal and permanent migration of rural people to urban centres. People who migrate to urban centres need jobs (employment) and this causes the government to attempt to create more jobs by further industrialisation. Sensible solutions to the causes of today\u2019s farmers\u2019 crisis situation will not only largely relieve the government of the need to \u201cprovide jobs\u201d since rural people will have occupations that will keep them independent and working on the land, but will also increase food grain production.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Economic Impact of Migration: <\/strong>At the aggregate level, labour emigration affects the sending country\u2019s economy through its impact on the market, on macro-economic variables (savings, balance of payments and so on), and social relations. These impacts are summarised below.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Four major categories of interventions can be envisaged, which will differ for internal and external migration.<\/p>\n<p>These categories relate to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Addressing underdevelopment and improving the synergy between migration and development;<\/li>\n<li>Improving labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> market outcomes;<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Ensuring basic entitlements to migrant workers; and<\/li>\n<li>Improving the social and political environment for migration<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0Health and Education: <\/strong>labourers working in harsh circumstances and living in unhygienic conditions suffer from serious occupational health problems and are vulnerable to disease. Those working in quarries, construction sites and mines suffer from various health hazards, mostly lung diseases. As the employer does not follow safety measures, accidents are quite frequent. Migrants cannot access various health and family care programmes due to their temporary status. Free public health care facilities and programmes are not accessible to them. For women workers, there is no provision of maternity leave, forcing them to resume work almost immediately after childbirth. Workers, particularly those working in tile factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such as body ache, sunstroke and skin irritation<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Impact on Source Areas: <\/strong>The major impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes in the labour market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of expenditure and investment. Although seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing out employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a tightening of the labour market in some circumstances. However, empirical evidence from out-migrant areas does not often attest to this. This may be because outmigration often takes place in labour surplus<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Role of Panchayats: <\/strong>Panchayats should emerge as the focus of the resource pool for migrant workers residing in their area. They should maintain a register of migrant workers and issue identity cards and pass books to them. Further, it should be mandatory for recruiters to deposit with the Panchayats a list of the labourers recruited by them along with other employment details. With growing IT based communication; it may become possible for Panchayats or NGOs to maintain a record of potential employers and employees.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Problems Encountered by Migrants:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Problems encountered by the migrant workers may be examined at two levels.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">First in relation to recruitment violations and<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Second\u00a0 in\u00a0 relation\u00a0 to\u00a0 working\u00a0 and\u00a0 living\u00a0 conditions\u00a0 in\u00a0 destination\u00a0 countries;\u00a0 commonly\u00a0 reported violations are delayed deployment or non deployment<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of workers, overcharging or collection of fees\u00a0<\/span>far in excess of authorised<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> placement fees and illegal recruitment.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Illegal recruitment is another serious violation of the rules as workers get recruited and deployed overseas without the government knowing about them. Being unlicensed, illegal recruiters are beyond the reach of the normal regulatory machinery of the national overseas employment policy.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Some major problems encountered by the migrants in their countries of employment include:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>premature termination of job contracts,<\/li>\n<li>changing the clauses of contract<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to the disadvantage of the workers,<\/span><\/li>\n<li>delay in payment of salary,<\/li>\n<li>violation of minimum wage standards,<\/li>\n<li>freezing of fringe benefits and other perks,<\/li>\n<li>forced over-time work without returns and<\/li>\n<li>denial of permission to keep one\u2019s own passport<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0Causes of Stagnancy in Occupational Pattern of India<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Slow Growth of Industrial Sector: <\/strong>The cause of stagnancy in occupational pattern is the slow growth of industrial sector especially the manufacturing sector. Thus the slow growth of our industrial sector has kept the occupational pattern traditional.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Neglect of small scale and Cottage<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: The neglect of small scale and cottage industries is the factor responsible for the traditional nature of our occupational pattern. These industries use <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> intensive technique of production. With <\/span>small<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> amount of <\/span>capital<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> these industries can employ more <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Failure of the Employment Policy: <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Another reason for failure to change the occupational pattern was the failure of our employment policy. A review of the employment policy during the last several decades of planning reveals that no serious attempt was made by the Indian planners to develop and diversify the rural economy. The unemployment alleviation programmes could not succeed due to poor management and leakages of <\/span>fund<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. No sincere efforts have been made by planners to develop <\/span>agricultural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sector like road construction, land reclamation, digging of canals etc. Infect planners failed to give emphasis on rural <\/span>industrialisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. As a result occupational structure remained traditional.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Capital intensive Industries<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: Since the beginning of planning the planners gave emphasis on capital intensive heavy industries in the producer goods sector. This had very limited employment generation effects. <\/span>Besides<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there was <\/span>rapid<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> expansion of luxury durable consumer goods industries using capital intensive methods. As a <\/span>result<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there was no shift of surplus <\/span>labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> from <\/span>agricultural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sector to the industrial sector.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Pressure of Population Growth<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">: Rapid growth of population in India is a major cause of the traditional nature of our occupational pattern. Due to <\/span>population<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> explosion, there is <\/span>sharp<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> increase <\/span>of<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> our work force especially in <\/span>rural<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> part of the country. <\/span>Generally<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> more than <\/span>two thirds<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of increased <\/span>labour joins labour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> force. Lack of <\/span>alternative<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> source of employment in <\/span>agriculture,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> leads to disguised employment and underemployment.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Financing outmigration: <\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It would also be worth establishing a government system of offering <\/span>low interest<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> loans to less well-off emigrants to finance outmigration. Such a system of financing out migration may also ensure that those emigrants availing the <\/span>low interest<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> loans would resort to formal banking channels to transfer their remittances back home. This would further augment the foreign exchange resources, which are vital for a developing country like India.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0Utilising resource flows and human capital of emigrants to strengthen development<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There is an absence of any policy framework regarding the effective utilisation of financial inflows from emigrants to strengthen the development process at national or state levels. Similarly, the existing policy regime in India hardly addresses any concerns related to the migration of persons with technical or professional expertise, many of whom are willing to make a contribution to the development process, either in their non-resident status or as returnees. These issues need close consideration at national and regional levels and effective policies need to be formulated which can integrate development concerns with the migration process A focused approach is required to ensure that the basic entitlements of the poor to food, elementary education, basic health are fulfilled, as also their entitlement to other government programmes and subsidies.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Improvement in the economic, social and political environment in favour of migration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Disadvantages faced by poor migrants are accentuated because of their low political voice in source and destination areas; because they often comprise a distinct ethnic, social or cultural group, and are seen to be threatening to the livelihoods of workers in the destination areas. As a consequence, they can be victims of strong prejudices. There is, thus a role for advocacy to remove stereotypes and misapprehensions and for a campaign to buttress the voices of poor migrants. In the case of Indian emigrants and people of Indian origin, it is critical to address how they can participate in selected but specific developmental activities. Another significant issue is the identification of possible ways in which human capital can return to India and, having returned, can contribute to the development process.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Anthropologists provide information about communities that help agencies adapt projects to conditions and needs. Thus an anthropological perspective on issues of human development is cross-cultural, and includes an examination of the present social, political and economical theology of globalization, with a clearly articulated emphasis on the context-appropriate rebuilding or retention of economies, with a view toward the protection of the environment, the preservation of cultural diversity, and the empowerment of communities and their members. In India, three out of four households include a migrant. However despite the large scale of migration in absolute numbers of people involved and India\u2019s long history of population and labour mobility, labour migration has rarely been reliably studied. Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">There is <\/span>extensive<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that <\/span>emphasise<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> individual rationality and household <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development. Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different locations.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">These issues need close consideration at national and regional levels and effective policies need to be formulated which can integrate development concerns with the migration process A focused approach is required to ensure that the basic entitlements of the poor to food, elementary education, basic health are fulfilled, as also their entitlement to other government programmes and subsidies.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>you can view video on Migration and occupational shift<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/C2micH_-kYg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Know More \/ Web Resources<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>SUGGESTED READING<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1993). Migrant Labour in Quarries and Brickkilns: An Overview. Surat, India: Centre for Social Studies [mimeo].<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994a). Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Centre for Social Studies (1990). Report of the Study Group on Migrant Labour. Surat, India: National Commission on Rural Labour.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chandra, N. and Singh, C.S.K. (1983). Working Condition of Brick-Kiln Workers. National Labour Institute Bulletin, 9(1).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. ed. (1987). Migrant Labour and Related Issues. Delhi: Oxford and IBH.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lewis, A. (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, May.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Madhavan, M.C. (1985). Indian emigrants: Numbers, characteristics and economic impact. Population and Development Review, 11(3).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Nayyar, D. (1994). Migration, Remittances and Capital Flows: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 REFERENCES<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1984). Labour migration from south and south-east Asia: Some policy issues. International Labour Review, 123(4), July\u2013August.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1992). Contemporary labour migration from Asia: Policies and perspectives of sending countries. In: Kritz, M.M. et al eds. (1992) International Migration Systems: A Global\u00a0 Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. (1997). Sending Workers Abroad. Geneva: ILO.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Abella, M.I. and Yogesh, A. eds. (1986). Middle East Interlude: Asian Workers Abroad. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994a). Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1994b). Capital and labour in the cane fields. In: Breman, J. (1994) Wage Hunters and Gatherers: Search for Work in the Urban and Rural Economy of Gujarat. Delhi: Oxford University Press [originally published in the Journal of Peasant Studies, July 1990].<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J. (1996). Footloose Labour: Working in India\u2019s Informal Sector. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Breman, J., Kloos, P. and Saith, A. (1997). The Village in Asia Revisited. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Castles, S. and Miller, M. (1993). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillam.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Centre for Social Studies (1990). Report of the Study Group on Migrant Labour. Surat, India: National Commission on Rural Labour.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chandra, N. and Singh, C.S.K. (1983). Working Condition of Brick-Kiln Workers. National Labour Institute Bulletin, 9(1).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1993). Migrant Labour in Quarries and Brickkilns: An Overview. Surat, India: Centre for Social Studies [mimeo].<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Das, B. (1994). Slums, migrants and the urban informal sector in Surat city. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 37(3).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Eaton, R. (1984). The Rise of Islam and Bengal Frontier. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Eevit, Z. and Zachariah, K.C. (1978). International labour migration. Finance and Development, 15(4).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gill, I. (1984). Migrant labour: A mirror survey of Jullunder and east Champaran. Economic and Political Weekly, June.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gulati, I.S. and Mody, A. (1983). Remittances of Indian Migrants to the Middle East: An Assessment with Reference to Migrants from Kerala. Working Paper No. 182. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Harris, J.R. and Todaro, M.P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two sector analysis. American Economic Review, 60(1), pp. 126\u201338.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. and Joshi, H. (1976). Surplus Labour and the City: A Study of Bombay. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Joshi, V. ed. (1987). Migrant Labour and Related Issues. Delhi: Oxford and IBH.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lewis, A. (1954) Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, May.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Madhavan, M.C. (1985). Indian emigrants: Numbers, characteristics and economic impact. Population and Development Review, 11(3).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Nayyar, D. (1994). Migration, Remittances and Capital Flows: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Piore, M.J. (1983). Labor market segmentation: To what paradigm does it belong? American Economic Review, 73(2), pp. 249\u201353.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sasikumar, S.K. (1995a). Trends, pattern and characteristics of Indian labour migration to the Middle East during the twentieth century. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 38(2).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Tinker, H. (1974). A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830\u20131920.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">London: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zachariah, K.C., Mathew, E.T. and Irudaya Rajan, S. (2002b). Consequences of migration: Socioeconomic and demographic dimensions. In: Zachariah, K.C. et al eds. (2002) Kerala\u2019s Gulf Connection CDS Studies on International Labour Migration from Kerala State in India. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala: Centre for Development Studies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":33,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["vineet-kumar-verma"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[59],"license":[],"class_list":["post-287","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-vineet-kumar-verma"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/287","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/287\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":293,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/287\/revisions\/293"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/287\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=287"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=287"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=287"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=287"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}