{"id":165,"date":"2019-03-25T04:10:51","date_gmt":"2019-03-25T04:10:51","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp05.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=165"},"modified":"2019-03-25T04:31:52","modified_gmt":"2019-03-25T04:31:52","slug":"problems-of-tribal-identity","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/chapter\/problems-of-tribal-identity\/","title":{"rendered":"Problems of tribal identity"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Nnst1R4lKkY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Table of Content<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concept of Tribe<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribal distribution in India<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Identification of Tribes<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Learning Objective<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">To able to define the concept of tribe that have been\u00a0 made in Anthropology<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>To determine the identity of tribes in India<\/li>\r\n \t<li>To be able to define and distinguish between tribal and other civilised population<\/li>\r\n \t<li>To able to define the social structure of tribal<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> population in India<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The tribal\u2019s are an integral part of the Indian population. Their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious belief and <\/span>centuries long<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> association with the Indian society. The study of tribal\u2019s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to the attempts, made by European colonists, travellers, explorers, and missionaries to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in India.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concept of Tribe<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In contemporary India, the word \u2018tribe\u2019 has thus little cultural or social implications. It has become the watchword of the political consciousness of a particular group of <\/span>a people<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in the country. Like caste consciousness or regional consciousness, tribal consciousness is fast developing to be a political tool which has become symbolic of privileged treatment, separatist tendencies and in places a barrier to national integration.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kings man in particular and community members in general. They grow in the intimacy of the social atmosphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. They feel pleasure in roaming about hills, forests <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> fields. Nature makes him intimate with the environment. He often meets friends and visits his own relations on different festive occasions and in periodical new relations and association with people.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A series of <\/span>concept have<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> been offered by the earlier Anthropologists like Morgan, Tylor, Perry, Rivers, and Lowie to cover a social group known as <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. These definitions are, by no means complete and these professional Anthropologists have not been able to develop a set of precise indices to classify groups as \u2018tribal\u2019 or \u2018<\/span>non tribal<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u2019. The term generally refers to territorial communities living in the relative isolation in foot-hills and forests.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Many attempts have been made in anthropology to define and <\/span>characterise<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> on \u2018tribe\u2019, but there is no consensus on defining characteristics. Territorially race, economy animism, political autonomy etc have been variously used. In <\/span>fact<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> it appears that the dozens of definition and characteristics of \u2018tribe\u2019 floating around in anthropological literature are as diverse as the field situation encountered by those proposing the definitions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Purely for sake of classification and enumeration, the British Government in India introduced the category of \u2018tribe\u2019 (with occasional qualifying prefixes like \u2018hill and jungle\u2019, \u2018aboriginal\u2019, \u2018indigenous\u2019) to designate these people. The word tribe had been hitherto used by European historians to refer to such distinctive groups of people as the Gauls or the Anglo-Saxons in Europe and such\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">autonomous political groups as Lichchivi, Mulla, Yaudheya and Khasa in ancient India, or such wide descent groups as the tribes of Israel or the Arab tribes in Western Asia. Social Anthropologists like Rivers were using the word in reference to the people of Melanesia where each <\/span>hill top<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> or valley sheltered groups of people who were politically autonomous and, as if to show that, were constantly at war with each other. It is significant to note that unaffected by its usage in India, British Social Anthropologists like Radcliffe-Brown, Evans Pritchard, Fortes <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Nadel have used the word tribe to refer an autonomous political unit which lives on its own territory and possesses its own distinctive way of life.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the Indian context, efforts have been made to find common denominators if not a common definition of the word tribe. The Commissioner for scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes in his report for the year 1952 has listed eight such common features. These are:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">They live away from the civilized world in the inaccessible part lying in the forests and hills,<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They belong to either one of the three stocks- Negritos, Australoids or Mongoloids.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They speak the same tribal dialect,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Profess primitive soul known as \u201cAnimism\u201d in which the worship of ghosts and spirits is the most important element,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Follow primitive occupations such as gleaning, hunting, and gathering of forest product,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They are largely carnivorous or flesh and meat eaters,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They live either naked or semi- naked<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> using tree-barks and leaves for clothing, and<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They have nomadic habits and love for drink and dance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Let us start with the orthodox definition of tribe as revealed in the \u2018Dictionary of Anthropology\u2019 which states: \u201cTribe is a social group, usually with a definite are, dialect, cultural homogeneity, and unifying social organization\u201d. It may include several subs - groups, such as sibs or villages. It may and may have common ancestor as well as presiding deities. The families or small communities making up a tribe, are linked through economic, social, religious, or blood ties i.e. kingship bondage.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality, absolutely illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living within their own community whose marriage always takes place among themselves, engaged in hunting and searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food, completely oblivious of the country\u2019s political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of development and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dr<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Rivers added the criteria of \u2018having <\/span>single<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> government and acting together for such common purposes as warfare\u2019<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof. Perry thinks that \u2018a common dialect and a common territory \u2018should be treated as the criteria for labelling<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> a group as <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof S.C. Dube has remarked that \u201cPartly because of the isolation and partly because of their limited world view, characterized by lack of historical depth and an overall tradition \u2013 orientation, they are integrated themes and special cultural focus give them a separate cultural identity and they often posses<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> latent and manifest value attitude, and motivational system which are remarkably different from those of the other people\u201d.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The Tata Institute of Social Science has made following<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> comment on this issue. \u201cA tribe could be a collection of families without the existence of <\/span>community<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in the scientific sense of the word. A tribe as a social organization is able to decide upon its own function or the need or otherwise of independence between its different components, units or groups. Economic backwardness is very relative.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof. S.C. Sinha has tried to define the category \u2018tribe\u2019 as essentially pre literate<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> groups living in relative isolation in hills and forests or in the plains skirting the forests who are apparently outside the threshold of \u2018Brabmanic hierarchic <\/span>civilisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u2019.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 On the basis of certain universal characteristics contained in various definitions, Majumdar (1958) proposed a definition of tribe claiming that some of it would define a tribe anywhere.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cA tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of function ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognising social distance with other tribes, caste, without any social obloquy attaching to them as it does in the caste structure following tribal traditions, belief and customs illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.\u201d<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In Indian context, too, the term is a British legacy. They classified as tribe such people who were beyond the pale of Hindu Varna system occupied inaccessible hills and forests and were of dark complexion. Neither Hindu nor any other Indian language has a corresponding term with exact connotation as \u2018tribe\u2019. This in itself is a proof enough that Indian language have never conceptually set these people apart from the rest.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It was perhaps a well-meaning act on the part of our Constitution framers in 1947-50 to incorporate statutory guarantees of privileges to our backward castes and tribes. The <\/span>principle<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> no doubts were good. But the way it has been administered by the government and exploited by vested interests - both foreign and Indian \u2013 has led to the present situation of unrest in our tribal areas. On the one hand, we have failed to give to our \u2018tribal\u2019 brother\u2019s education, health education, health and the basic necessities of comfortable existence. On the other, we have made them dependent upon doles which they have now come to regard as their <\/span>birth right<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> by virtue of their belongings to a community rather than because of their techno-economic backwardness.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribes distribution in India<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India\u2019s population, constituting 8 percent of her\u2019 total population (Census, 2001), is \u201cvaried in terms of <\/span>socio - economic<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other. The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Identification of Tribes<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Added to this is the administrative problem of the identification of tribes for purpose of scheduling and consequent grant of privileges guaranteed to the Scheduled <\/span>tribes<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> under the Constitution. Well-meaning, the constitution framers guaranteed certain privileges to the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes in matters of representation, services, education, and so on. Before <\/span>Independence<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> the general tendency was for \u2018lowly\u2019 castes and tribes to make effort to elevate their social position and try to get recognition (formally from the Government at the time of the decennial censuses) as \u2018upper castes.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Definite Common Topography\/ Geographical isolation or semi-isolation<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region. In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribal\u2019s will lose other characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ethnic distinctiveness from the national society<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 Taking a lead from Guha Racial classification on Indian tribal\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>A)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Negrito group: <\/strong>The characteristics physical features of this group are very short, pigmy stature, dark black skin colour, woolly and frizzly hair, broad nose, dolichocephalic head. The Andamanese, Onge, (of the Andaman\u2019s), the Kadar, Urails of South India belong to this physical type.<\/p>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>B)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Proto \u2013 Australoid group: <\/strong>This group is characterised by medium stature dark brown skin colour, wavy and curly hair, thick lip, broad nose, and doilcho-mesocephalic head. The Gond of Bastar, the Bhil of Rajasthan, the Oraon, Munda, Santal of Chotanagpur, Chenchu of Andhra Pradesh, Juang of Orissa, Kharia, Bhumij, Ho of Singhbhum district of Bihar possesses the characteristics of the proto \u2013 Australoid.<\/p>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>C)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Mongoloid group: <\/strong>This group is characterised by medium stature, yellowish brown skin colour, flat face, oblique eye \u2013 slit with epicanthic fold, scanty beard and moustache.<\/p>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Their hair has the tendency to be straight. The tribal\u2019s of north eastern zone belonging to this racial type. The Naga, Khasi, Garo, Lepcha, Bhutia, Dafia, Abor, Mismi, and some other neighbouring tribes are having Mongoloid features.<\/p>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>D)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Nordic group: <\/strong>The Toda of Nilgiri hills of south India are regarded as the solitary example of this racial type so far India is concerned They are characterised by tall stature, rosy \u2013 white skin colour, wavy hair, prominent fine nose, thin lip, and with plenty of facial and body hair.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Sense of Unity<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal\u2019s sense of unity during the times of peace and war. They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Economic base tightly dependent on their, specific environment<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed <\/span>economics<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. The evolution of the economy from non \u2013 feudal to feudal and then to commercial conditions can take place during any\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">stage of Tribal evolution. Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; largely or entirely independent of the national economic system; the sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal\u2019s are concerned; starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Communitarian basis of land holding<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Each tribal group is often identified with a particular territory; therefore, some scholars also suggest that \u201ca tribe is a territorial group\u201d. Bearing a few exceptions of some nomadic tribes, the entire tribal group are found to have emotional attachment with their land and habitat. Because of their sentimental attachment with their land to the tribal\u2019s have always resisted any outside interference. Tribal resistance against interference in their habitat and land system is reflected in various tribal revolts in the past, as well as failures of several tribal resettlement schemes in different parts of the country.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal\u2019s<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Although most of the tribal people of India are agriculturists yet their economy basically remains at the subsistence level. As a result the tribal\u2019s at own, exert little effort to afford proper education. Whatever education the tribal\u2019s have received so far has been because of the efforts of the missionaries and the central and the respective state government. Among several tribes socio \u2013 cultural factors have been mainly responsible for low literacy rate, particularly among the girls. There are other socio-cultural factors as well, such as early marriage which prevents particularly a tribal girl child to receive proper education and stake her claim in the job.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Endogamous Group<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribal\u2019s and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common. A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists entry of any outsiders inside their territory. All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of young boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Common Dialect<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element further strengthens their sense of unity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ties of Blood-relationship<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the tribal\u2019s.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Protection Awareness<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Distinct Political Organization<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 The political life of the tribal\u2019s of India reflects a paradoxical situation in which democracy and monarchy co-exist. Every head of the community at different levels like clan, village and territory is generally honoured, obeyed and accepted as the head of the group. Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe. Absence of strong, complex, formal organization possessing leadership but no more national representation, and few, if any political rights.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Common Culture<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, and common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribal\u2019s; unacculturated or partially acculturated into national society<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Folk-art is part of the culture but not the whole of it. It includes folklore, i.e., myths, legends, tales, proverbs, riddles, ballads, and other songs, folk-dance, folk-music, folk- carvings etc.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Importance of Kinship<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among tribals is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage; kinship as an instrument of social bonds.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Egalitarian Values<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some degrees of social inequality may be found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political power and posse\u2019s wealth. A lack of hierarchy among men and groups found among them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Rudimentary type of Religion\/ Common religion and Common culture<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Belief in the existence of superhuman or supernatural power is almost universal. Experiences of certain day to day sudden happenings, of disease, death and unexplainable, have led to the tribal people in to believing in other then material visible world, i.e. in the invisible spirit \u2013 world or the supernatural. They have established a kind of close relationship between themselves and this power.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of religion. Further, they believe in totems signifying objects having mystic relationship with members of the tribe. Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal; lack of distinction between form and substance of religion<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Summary<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The tribal have characteristics of their own. They differ from the common Indian population both in character and composition. On an all \u2013 India basis Indian non tribal population vary widely from place to place according to natural surroundings, economy, tradition and local history. On the other hand the tribal population of India has, more or less, similar natural environments of hill and forest, poor economy, and specific tradition which are ideal for the tribal to come up. The most obvious way to grasp a tribal village in India is to consider its geographical settings, settlement pattern and size on the one hand and the social settings including ethnic composition, on the other.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>you can view video on Problems of tribal identity<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Nnst1R4lKkY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Know More \/ Web Resources<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Suggested Reading<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Georg Pfeffer. Hunters, Tribes and Peasant: Cultural Crisis and Comparison. Bhubaneswar: Niswas.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Vidarthy, L.P. and Rai. Applied Anthropology in India.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>B\u00e9teille, Andr\u00e9 (1992) The Backward Classes in Contemporary India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Beteille, Andre, 1974, Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Delhi, Oxford University Press<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhalla Surjit (2011), \u201cInclusion and Growth in India: Some Facts, Some Conclusions\u201d,\u00a0 Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.39<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhattacharyya, N.N. (1995) Religious Culture of North-Eastern India (H.K. Barpujari Lectures). Delhi: Manohar. Biardeau, Madeleine (1989) Hinduism, the Anthropology of a Civilization. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Biswas, P.C. (1956) Santals of Santal Pargana. Delhi: Bhartiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bliss Christopher and Nicholas Stern (1982), \u201cPalanpur: The Economy of an Indian Village\u201d, Oxford University Press, Delhi<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bodding, P.O. (1942) Traditions and Institutions of the Santals. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum (Bulletin 6).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chaudhury, Sukant K. (2007) Civilizational approach to the study of Indian society. The Eastern Anthropologist, 60, pp. 501-8.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cohn, B.S. (1987) An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cohn, B.S. (1987), An Anthropologist among Historian and other Essays, Delhi.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Culshaw, W.J. (1949) Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals. London: Lutterworth Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Deliege, Robert (1985) Bhils of Western India. Delhi: National Publishing House.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Desai, A.R. (1969) Tribes in transition. In A.R. Desai (Ed.) Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, pp. 221-31.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dev Nathan, 1997, From Tribe to Caste, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dube, S.C. (1955), Indian Village, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dube, S.C., 1990, Indian Society, New Delhi, National Book Trust<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Ghurye, G.S., 1963, The Scheduled Tribe, Popular Book Depot.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Government of India (2006) Draft, National Tribal Policy (A Policy for Scheduled Tribes of India). July 2006. New Delhi: Ministry of Tribal Affairs. Dube,<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Hasnain, Nadeem, 2004, Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, New Delhi, Jawahar Publishers and Distributors<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Himanshu, Ishan Bakshi and Camille Dufour (2011), \u201cPoverty, Inequality and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Mobility in Palanpur: Some Preliminary Results\u201d, Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.45<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kala, C.P. (2011). Indigenous uses and sustainable harvesting of trees by local people in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve of India. J. Med. Arom. Plants, ISSN 2249-4340, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.153-161.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Louis, P. (2000). \u201cMarginalisation of Tribals.\u201d Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.35. No.47: pp. 4087-4091.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mahapatra, S. (1997). The Celebration of Life. Tribal Language and Culture of Orissa. K. Mahapatra (Ed.) Bhubaneswar: Academy of Tribal Dialects and Culture, Government of Orissa.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pal, T. (2011). \u201cChanging Tribal Culture: A Photo-Geographical Explanation\u201d Current Research Journal of Social Science ,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Volume: 3, Issue: 6, pp. 483-489.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pasayat, C. (2003). Glimpses of Tribal and Folk Culture. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Risley, Herbert (1915) The People of India. [Reprint 1969.] Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint. 32 Indian Institute of Dalit Studies and Religions and Development Research Programme Working Paper Series, Volume I, Number 03<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">S.C. (1955) Indian Village. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Eschmann, A., H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathy (1978) The Cult of Jagannatha and the Regional Tradition of Orissa. New Delhi: Manohar. Fuller, Christopher J. (1992) The Camphor Flame, Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Saraswati, B.N., 1997, \u2018Tribes as Caste\u2019 in From Tribe to Caste edited by Dev Nathan, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sharma, S.L. (2009), Emerging Tribal Identity: A Study of Minas of Rajasthan. Jaipur :<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Rawat\u00a0<\/span>Publications. Singh, K.S. (1994) The Scheduled Tribes. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India and Oxford University Press (reprinted 1997).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Singh, K.S. (1982). \u201cTransform of Tribal Society.\u201d Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.17. No34: pp1376-1384.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sinha, Surajit (1959) Bhumij-Kshariya social movement in South Manbhum. Bulletin of the Department of Anthropology, Government of India, 8, pp. 9-32.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sinha, Surajit (1962) Status formation and Rajput myth in tribal central India. Man in India, 42, pp. 35-80. Social Anthropology in Eastern India. New Delhi: Serials Publications<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Interesting Facts<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Nnst1R4lKkY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Table of Content<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concept of Tribe<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribal distribution in India<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Identification of Tribes<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Learning Objective<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">To able to define the concept of tribe that have been\u00a0 made in Anthropology<\/span><\/li>\n<li>To determine the identity of tribes in India<\/li>\n<li>To be able to define and distinguish between tribal and other civilised population<\/li>\n<li>To able to define the social structure of tribal<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> population in India<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The tribal\u2019s are an integral part of the Indian population. Their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious belief and <\/span>centuries long<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> association with the Indian society. The study of tribal\u2019s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to the attempts, made by European colonists, travellers, explorers, and missionaries to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in India.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concept of Tribe<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In contemporary India, the word \u2018tribe\u2019 has thus little cultural or social implications. It has become the watchword of the political consciousness of a particular group of <\/span>a people<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in the country. Like caste consciousness or regional consciousness, tribal consciousness is fast developing to be a political tool which has become symbolic of privileged treatment, separatist tendencies and in places a barrier to national integration.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kings man in particular and community members in general. They grow in the intimacy of the social atmosphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. They feel pleasure in roaming about hills, forests <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> fields. Nature makes him intimate with the environment. He often meets friends and visits his own relations on different festive occasions and in periodical new relations and association with people.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">A series of <\/span>concept have<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> been offered by the earlier Anthropologists like Morgan, Tylor, Perry, Rivers, and Lowie to cover a social group known as <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. These definitions are, by no means complete and these professional Anthropologists have not been able to develop a set of precise indices to classify groups as \u2018tribal\u2019 or \u2018<\/span>non tribal<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u2019. The term generally refers to territorial communities living in the relative isolation in foot-hills and forests.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Many attempts have been made in anthropology to define and <\/span>characterise<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> on \u2018tribe\u2019, but there is no consensus on defining characteristics. Territorially race, economy animism, political autonomy etc have been variously used. In <\/span>fact<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> it appears that the dozens of definition and characteristics of \u2018tribe\u2019 floating around in anthropological literature are as diverse as the field situation encountered by those proposing the definitions.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Purely for sake of classification and enumeration, the British Government in India introduced the category of \u2018tribe\u2019 (with occasional qualifying prefixes like \u2018hill and jungle\u2019, \u2018aboriginal\u2019, \u2018indigenous\u2019) to designate these people. The word tribe had been hitherto used by European historians to refer to such distinctive groups of people as the Gauls or the Anglo-Saxons in Europe and such\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">autonomous political groups as Lichchivi, Mulla, Yaudheya and Khasa in ancient India, or such wide descent groups as the tribes of Israel or the Arab tribes in Western Asia. Social Anthropologists like Rivers were using the word in reference to the people of Melanesia where each <\/span>hill top<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> or valley sheltered groups of people who were politically autonomous and, as if to show that, were constantly at war with each other. It is significant to note that unaffected by its usage in India, British Social Anthropologists like Radcliffe-Brown, Evans Pritchard, Fortes <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Nadel have used the word tribe to refer an autonomous political unit which lives on its own territory and possesses its own distinctive way of life.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the Indian context, efforts have been made to find common denominators if not a common definition of the word tribe. The Commissioner for scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes in his report for the year 1952 has listed eight such common features. These are:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">They live away from the civilized world in the inaccessible part lying in the forests and hills,<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They belong to either one of the three stocks- Negritos, Australoids or Mongoloids.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They speak the same tribal dialect,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Profess primitive soul known as \u201cAnimism\u201d in which the worship of ghosts and spirits is the most important element,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Follow primitive occupations such as gleaning, hunting, and gathering of forest product,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They are largely carnivorous or flesh and meat eaters,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They live either naked or semi- naked<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> using tree-barks and leaves for clothing, and<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">They have nomadic habits and love for drink and dance.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Let us start with the orthodox definition of tribe as revealed in the \u2018Dictionary of Anthropology\u2019 which states: \u201cTribe is a social group, usually with a definite are, dialect, cultural homogeneity, and unifying social organization\u201d. It may include several subs &#8211; groups, such as sibs or villages. It may and may have common ancestor as well as presiding deities. The families or small communities making up a tribe, are linked through economic, social, religious, or blood ties i.e. kingship bondage.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality, absolutely illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living within their own community whose marriage always takes place among themselves, engaged in hunting and searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food, completely oblivious of the country\u2019s political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of development and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dr<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Rivers added the criteria of \u2018having <\/span>single<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> government and acting together for such common purposes as warfare\u2019<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof. Perry thinks that \u2018a common dialect and a common territory \u2018should be treated as the criteria for labelling<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> a group as <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof S.C. Dube has remarked that \u201cPartly because of the isolation and partly because of their limited world view, characterized by lack of historical depth and an overall tradition \u2013 orientation, they are integrated themes and special cultural focus give them a separate cultural identity and they often posses<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> latent and manifest value attitude, and motivational system which are remarkably different from those of the other people\u201d.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">The Tata Institute of Social Science has made following<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> comment on this issue. \u201cA tribe could be a collection of families without the existence of <\/span>community<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in the scientific sense of the word. A tribe as a social organization is able to decide upon its own function or the need or otherwise of independence between its different components, units or groups. Economic backwardness is very relative.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prof. S.C. Sinha has tried to define the category \u2018tribe\u2019 as essentially pre literate<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> groups living in relative isolation in hills and forests or in the plains skirting the forests who are apparently outside the threshold of \u2018Brabmanic hierarchic <\/span>civilisation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u2019.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 On the basis of certain universal characteristics contained in various definitions, Majumdar (1958) proposed a definition of tribe claiming that some of it would define a tribe anywhere.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cA tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of function ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognising social distance with other tribes, caste, without any social obloquy attaching to them as it does in the caste structure following tribal traditions, belief and customs illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In Indian context, too, the term is a British legacy. They classified as tribe such people who were beyond the pale of Hindu Varna system occupied inaccessible hills and forests and were of dark complexion. Neither Hindu nor any other Indian language has a corresponding term with exact connotation as \u2018tribe\u2019. This in itself is a proof enough that Indian language have never conceptually set these people apart from the rest.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">It was perhaps a well-meaning act on the part of our Constitution framers in 1947-50 to incorporate statutory guarantees of privileges to our backward castes and tribes. The <\/span>principle<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> no doubts were good. But the way it has been administered by the government and exploited by vested interests &#8211; both foreign and Indian \u2013 has led to the present situation of unrest in our tribal areas. On the one hand, we have failed to give to our \u2018tribal\u2019 brother\u2019s education, health education, health and the basic necessities of comfortable existence. On the other, we have made them dependent upon doles which they have now come to regard as their <\/span>birth right<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> by virtue of their belongings to a community rather than because of their techno-economic backwardness.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribes distribution in India<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India\u2019s population, constituting 8 percent of her\u2019 total population (Census, 2001), is \u201cvaried in terms of <\/span>socio &#8211; economic<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other. The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of <\/span>tribe<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Identification of Tribes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Added to this is the administrative problem of the identification of tribes for purpose of scheduling and consequent grant of privileges guaranteed to the Scheduled <\/span>tribes<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> under the Constitution. Well-meaning, the constitution framers guaranteed certain privileges to the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes in matters of representation, services, education, and so on. Before <\/span>Independence<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> the general tendency was for \u2018lowly\u2019 castes and tribes to make effort to elevate their social position and try to get recognition (formally from the Government at the time of the decennial censuses) as \u2018upper castes.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Definite Common Topography\/ Geographical isolation or semi-isolation<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region. In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribal\u2019s will lose other characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ethnic distinctiveness from the national society<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>\u00a0 \u00a0 Taking a lead from Guha Racial classification on Indian tribal<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>A)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Negrito group: <\/strong>The characteristics physical features of this group are very short, pigmy stature, dark black skin colour, woolly and frizzly hair, broad nose, dolichocephalic head. The Andamanese, Onge, (of the Andaman\u2019s), the Kadar, Urails of South India belong to this physical type.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>B)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Proto \u2013 Australoid group: <\/strong>This group is characterised by medium stature dark brown skin colour, wavy and curly hair, thick lip, broad nose, and doilcho-mesocephalic head. The Gond of Bastar, the Bhil of Rajasthan, the Oraon, Munda, Santal of Chotanagpur, Chenchu of Andhra Pradesh, Juang of Orissa, Kharia, Bhumij, Ho of Singhbhum district of Bihar possesses the characteristics of the proto \u2013 Australoid.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>C)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Mongoloid group: <\/strong>This group is characterised by medium stature, yellowish brown skin colour, flat face, oblique eye \u2013 slit with epicanthic fold, scanty beard and moustache.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Their hair has the tendency to be straight. The tribal\u2019s of north eastern zone belonging to this racial type. The Naga, Khasi, Garo, Lepcha, Bhutia, Dafia, Abor, Mismi, and some other neighbouring tribes are having Mongoloid features.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>D)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong><strong>The Nordic group: <\/strong>The Toda of Nilgiri hills of south India are regarded as the solitary example of this racial type so far India is concerned They are characterised by tall stature, rosy \u2013 white skin colour, wavy hair, prominent fine nose, thin lip, and with plenty of facial and body hair.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sense of Unity<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal\u2019s sense of unity during the times of peace and war. They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Economic base tightly dependent on their, specific environment<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed <\/span>economics<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. The evolution of the economy from non \u2013 feudal to feudal and then to commercial conditions can take place during any\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">stage of Tribal evolution. Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; largely or entirely independent of the national economic system; the sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal\u2019s are concerned; starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Communitarian basis of land holding<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Each tribal group is often identified with a particular territory; therefore, some scholars also suggest that \u201ca tribe is a territorial group\u201d. Bearing a few exceptions of some nomadic tribes, the entire tribal group are found to have emotional attachment with their land and habitat. Because of their sentimental attachment with their land to the tribal\u2019s have always resisted any outside interference. Tribal resistance against interference in their habitat and land system is reflected in various tribal revolts in the past, as well as failures of several tribal resettlement schemes in different parts of the country.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal\u2019s<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Although most of the tribal people of India are agriculturists yet their economy basically remains at the subsistence level. As a result the tribal\u2019s at own, exert little effort to afford proper education. Whatever education the tribal\u2019s have received so far has been because of the efforts of the missionaries and the central and the respective state government. Among several tribes socio \u2013 cultural factors have been mainly responsible for low literacy rate, particularly among the girls. There are other socio-cultural factors as well, such as early marriage which prevents particularly a tribal girl child to receive proper education and stake her claim in the job.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Endogamous Group<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribal\u2019s and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common. A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists entry of any outsiders inside their territory. All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of young boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Common Dialect<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element further strengthens their sense of unity.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Ties of Blood-relationship<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the tribal\u2019s.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Protection Awareness<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Distinct Political Organization<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 The political life of the tribal\u2019s of India reflects a paradoxical situation in which democracy and monarchy co-exist. Every head of the community at different levels like clan, village and territory is generally honoured, obeyed and accepted as the head of the group. Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe. Absence of strong, complex, formal organization possessing leadership but no more national representation, and few, if any political rights.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Common Culture<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, and common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribal\u2019s; unacculturated or partially acculturated into national society<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Folk-art is part of the culture but not the whole of it. It includes folklore, i.e., myths, legends, tales, proverbs, riddles, ballads, and other songs, folk-dance, folk-music, folk- carvings etc.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Importance of Kinship<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among tribals is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage; kinship as an instrument of social bonds.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Egalitarian Values<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some degrees of social inequality may be found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political power and posse\u2019s wealth. A lack of hierarchy among men and groups found among them.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Rudimentary type of Religion\/ Common religion and Common culture<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Belief in the existence of superhuman or supernatural power is almost universal. Experiences of certain day to day sudden happenings, of disease, death and unexplainable, have led to the tribal people in to believing in other then material visible world, i.e. in the invisible spirit \u2013 world or the supernatural. They have established a kind of close relationship between themselves and this power.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of religion. Further, they believe in totems signifying objects having mystic relationship with members of the tribe. Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal; lack of distinction between form and substance of religion<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The tribal have characteristics of their own. They differ from the common Indian population both in character and composition. On an all \u2013 India basis Indian non tribal population vary widely from place to place according to natural surroundings, economy, tradition and local history. On the other hand the tribal population of India has, more or less, similar natural environments of hill and forest, poor economy, and specific tradition which are ideal for the tribal to come up. The most obvious way to grasp a tribal village in India is to consider its geographical settings, settlement pattern and size on the one hand and the social settings including ethnic composition, on the other.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>you can view video on Problems of tribal identity<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/Nnst1R4lKkY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Know More \/ Web Resources<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Suggested Reading<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Georg Pfeffer. Hunters, Tribes and Peasant: Cultural Crisis and Comparison. Bhubaneswar: Niswas.<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Vidarthy, L.P. and Rai. Applied Anthropology in India.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 References<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>B\u00e9teille, Andr\u00e9 (1992) The Backward Classes in Contemporary India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li>Beteille, Andre, 1974, Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Delhi, Oxford University Press<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhalla Surjit (2011), \u201cInclusion and Growth in India: Some Facts, Some Conclusions\u201d,\u00a0 Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.39<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhattacharyya, N.N. (1995) Religious Culture of North-Eastern India (H.K. Barpujari Lectures). Delhi: Manohar. Biardeau, Madeleine (1989) Hinduism, the Anthropology of a Civilization. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Biswas, P.C. (1956) Santals of Santal Pargana. Delhi: Bhartiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bliss Christopher and Nicholas Stern (1982), \u201cPalanpur: The Economy of an Indian Village\u201d, Oxford University Press, Delhi<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bodding, P.O. (1942) Traditions and Institutions of the Santals. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum (Bulletin 6).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chaudhury, Sukant K. (2007) Civilizational approach to the study of Indian society. The Eastern Anthropologist, 60, pp. 501-8.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cohn, B.S. (1987) An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays. Delhi: Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cohn, B.S. (1987), An Anthropologist among Historian and other Essays, Delhi.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Culshaw, W.J. (1949) Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals. London: Lutterworth Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Deliege, Robert (1985) Bhils of Western India. Delhi: National Publishing House.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Desai, A.R. (1969) Tribes in transition. In A.R. Desai (Ed.) Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, pp. 221-31.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dev Nathan, 1997, From Tribe to Caste, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dube, S.C. (1955), Indian Village, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Dube, S.C., 1990, Indian Society, New Delhi, National Book Trust<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Ghurye, G.S., 1963, The Scheduled Tribe, Popular Book Depot.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Government of India (2006) Draft, National Tribal Policy (A Policy for Scheduled Tribes of India). July 2006. New Delhi: Ministry of Tribal Affairs. Dube,<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Hasnain, Nadeem, 2004, Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, New Delhi, Jawahar Publishers and Distributors<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Himanshu, Ishan Bakshi and Camille Dufour (2011), \u201cPoverty, Inequality and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Mobility in Palanpur: Some Preliminary Results\u201d, Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.45<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kala, C.P. (2011). Indigenous uses and sustainable harvesting of trees by local people in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve of India. J. Med. Arom. Plants, ISSN 2249-4340, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.153-161.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Louis, P. (2000). \u201cMarginalisation of Tribals.\u201d Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.35. No.47: pp. 4087-4091.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mahapatra, S. (1997). The Celebration of Life. Tribal Language and Culture of Orissa. K. Mahapatra (Ed.) Bhubaneswar: Academy of Tribal Dialects and Culture, Government of Orissa.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pal, T. (2011). \u201cChanging Tribal Culture: A Photo-Geographical Explanation\u201d Current Research Journal of Social Science ,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Volume: 3, Issue: 6, pp. 483-489.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Pasayat, C. (2003). Glimpses of Tribal and Folk Culture. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Risley, Herbert (1915) The People of India. [Reprint 1969.] Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint. 32 Indian Institute of Dalit Studies and Religions and Development Research Programme Working Paper Series, Volume I, Number 03<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">S.C. (1955) Indian Village. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Eschmann, A., H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathy (1978) The Cult of Jagannatha and the Regional Tradition of Orissa. New Delhi: Manohar. Fuller, Christopher J. (1992) The Camphor Flame, Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Saraswati, B.N., 1997, \u2018Tribes as Caste\u2019 in From Tribe to Caste edited by Dev Nathan, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sharma, S.L. (2009), Emerging Tribal Identity: A Study of Minas of Rajasthan. Jaipur :<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Rawat\u00a0<\/span>Publications. Singh, K.S. (1994) The Scheduled Tribes. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India and Oxford University Press (reprinted 1997).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Singh, K.S. (1982). \u201cTransform of Tribal Society.\u201d Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.17. No34: pp1376-1384.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sinha, Surajit (1959) Bhumij-Kshariya social movement in South Manbhum. Bulletin of the Department of Anthropology, Government of India, 8, pp. 9-32.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Sinha, Surajit (1962) Status formation and Rajput myth in tribal central India. Man in India, 42, pp. 35-80. Social Anthropology in Eastern India. New Delhi: Serials Publications<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Interesting Facts<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":17,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["prof-anup-kumar-kapoor","ms-naila-ansari"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[69,60],"license":[],"class_list":["post-165","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-ms-naila-ansari","contributor-prof-anup-kumar-kapoor"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/165","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/165\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":173,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/165\/revisions\/173"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/165\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=165"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=165"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=165"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=165"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}