{"id":151,"date":"2019-03-20T11:47:30","date_gmt":"2019-03-20T11:47:30","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp05.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=151"},"modified":"2019-03-20T12:00:57","modified_gmt":"2019-03-20T12:00:57","slug":"gender-and-tribe","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/chapter\/gender-and-tribe\/","title":{"rendered":"Gender and tribe"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/D6C6K4gXy54\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Contents<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Gender and Culture<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tribes and Women<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tribes and Gender Summary<\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Learning objectives<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Through this module, one will able<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">To know about the concept of gender<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>To know about the concept of tribe<\/li>\r\n \t<li>To know about the status of women in tribes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>To know the relationship between all these concepts<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 1.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Study of Tribes in India concerns, for a focus on women in tribal <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Arya and Kapoor said that Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed sex appropriate <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">, demeanor, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and <\/span>is<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of \"gender\" that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, and access to employment, play, time use, and power in the public and private sphere. From the Gender <\/span>differentials<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> numerous problems emerge. To ensure gender justice through gender equality the National Policy for Empowerment of Women set its major objective to eliminate gender discrimination on <\/span>priority<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> basis. In line with this, the Tenth <\/span>five year<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> plan India calls for a survey\/search to identify areas with gender inequalities.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is a social institution as encompassing as the four main institutions of traditional anthropology-family, economy, religion <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> symbolic language. Women and men have different gender-based roles and responsibilities in their own lives, families, households, and communities. Oakley mentioned that the word sex is used for biological <\/span>differentiation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> between male and female. Gender is the division of people into two categories, \u201cmen\u201d and \u201cwomen\u201d. Gender is a matter of culture and refers to the social classification into \u201cMasculine\u201d and \u201cFeminine\u201d characters. We use the term \u201egender\u201f rather than \u201csex\u201d since the latter only describes biological characteristics, whereas the former-encompasses socially constructed categories of gender. The term sex and gender are sometimes used interchangeably but there is a strict distinction between them.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In Gender <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> the term \u201egender\u201f is used to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. It does not refer to <\/span>biological<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> difference, but <\/span>rather<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cultural difference.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the view of Bird and Melville gender is \u201cpsychological, sociological and cultural aspects of being male and female.\u201d Marcela who also defines gender as a social category that refers to and facilitates the analysis of the different roles, responsibilities, rights and opportunities and limitations of men and women within the family, the community, the society, the culture etc. Gender is a social construct while sex is a biological condition. Gender refers to the beliefs, personality traits, attitudes, sentiments and values, conducts and activities that distinguish men from women through a process of social formation that demonstrates specific characteristics. When we speak about Gender we are referring to the experiences of both men and women. Gender refers to the different social and cultural roles, expectations, and constraints placed upon men and women by virtue of their sex. It also refers to the differences and relations between men and women, that are learned, vary widely within and between cultures and which are changeable over time. In <\/span>fact<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> it is the gender that determines the position of male and female in society.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender refers to the different social roles that women and men play, and the power relations between them. Gender relations influence how communities, households, and institutions are organized, how decisions are made, and how resources are used. Gender studies are sometimes related to studies of class, race, ethnicity, and location.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is omnipresent in the formation and in the studies of humanities and social sciences. The recognition of research problems, <\/span>definition<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of scientific objects, and theoretical models of explanation, and furthermore, the distribution of innovative or risky outcomes is embedded in social-science and humanities where gender plays a central role. Gender interacts with life sciences mediated by social structures, symbolical representations <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> individual experiences. The agenda of gender research is correspondingly broad and ranges from the utilization of environmental resources (energy and water), the design of spaces and mobility organization to the management of knowledge, information <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> communication. It includes the politics of bodies, health <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sustenance. In order to come to terms with these dynamical complexities the interdisciplinary of women\u201fs and gender studies <\/span>needs<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to be developed further and broadened in order to engage with the fields of science, social sciences <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> different cultures. It also arose with the feminist critique that questioned women\u201fs \u201eanalytical visibility\u201f as well as \u201erepresentation\u201f of women in traditional anthropological studies and <\/span>expose<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> male bias in the anthropological interpretation. Conventional anthropological studies have been strongly consumed for trivializing women\u201fs activities, relying on male informants to know their women.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The study of variation in gender and gender roles across different cultures have been shaped by the symbolic and sociological approaches. The symbolic approach <\/span>use<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cultural variation and ideology to analyze gender symbolism and sex stereotypes. The sociological approach influenced by Marxism uses economic relation of production to study gender and to explain issues like status and subordination of\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">women, which it does not see as a universal fact. In the past, these approaches have been used independently. But today, a combination of both is being used since it is being realized that these approaches are mutually inclusive and when one is used independently on the other it is found to be inadequate. In 1978, <\/span>Indian<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Anthropological Society brought out a region wise survey of tribal women. It points out that studies of women have either been ignored or, when discussed, such discussions have been brief and sketchy. Except in some works by Elwin, Van Furer Haimendorf and a few others, there has been no explicit discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Even in these, the assessment on the status of women has been far from uniform. While some say that tribal societies generally assigned <\/span>high<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> status to women, others opine that women's position in tribal society is the same as in other societies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender and Culture<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. Gilmore observed that the culture must socialize its women to be obedient and except a position in the hierarchy that is subservient to its males. Carroll et al worked on gender and culture and finds out those gender roles may be seen as the constellation of <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> a culture aims appropriate for males and females and may include the attitude and emotion that are seen as fundamental to bring a man or <\/span>a women<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. Cyrus observed that feminine <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is characterized by passivity, domesticity, dependency, emotion expressiveness, and a preoccupation with one\u201fs physical appearance, the presence of nurturing and maternal instincts.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">3.\u00a0 Tribes and Women<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, Mann, Zehol, and Kapoor et al<\/span>,.<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there <\/span>has<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> been <\/span>more<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having <\/span>higher<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> social status than\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">their counterparts in <\/span>caste<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Mead in her classic study \u201eSex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies\u201f challenged that gender differences not only vary across cultures but within a culture they differ over time. Millet mentioned that principle of patriarchy <\/span>appear<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to be two-fold. Male shall dominate females, elder male shall dominate younger. Indra et al found that in India, both in the upper and the lower caste, the girl children are discriminated against boys, ranked unequally with lower status and prevented from realizing their full potential. Anand recorded that gender justice means <\/span>rights<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of women against exploitation and victimization. For women, who are victims of criminal assault, the material wealth and status symbols have no meaning. Bhatt (2001) observed that women in our country suffer from lack of awareness of their rights, illiteracy, oppressive practices and customs. In India, it has been computed that about six million abortions take place every year. Prasad recorded that women\u201fs lack of control over their own sexuality and fertility remains one of the most threatening aspects of their lives. Gender role ideologies subjugate women to patriarchal and traditional forces, girls and women, who defy gender expectations particularly with respect to family roles, are faced with harsh social penalties. Soundari and Sudhir (2003) claimed that women bear primary responsibilities for the well-being of their families yet they are discriminated systematically and denied access to resources such as education, health care services, job training etc.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">4.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribes and Gender<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Singh worked on women issues and reported <\/span>that,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in rural <\/span>India<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. The sufferings of women were many times greater than the sufferings of men. Agnihotri, et al conducted a study on women\u201fs issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with <\/span>higher<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> proportion of the scheduled tribes <\/span>exhibit<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> higher female participation rate. Butter reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women\u201fs economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concern for a focus on women in tribal studies has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Mishra and Kapoor observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Arya &amp; Kapoor worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. In caste <\/span>society<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> women suffer from rape, dowry, <\/span>crime<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> against women, political violence whereas in tribal societies women work harder than men and they have no share in land and they are beaten badly also. Xaxa conducted <\/span>study<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Study of Tribes in India concerns, for a focus on women in tribal <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching. The article attempts to highlight the issues involved on the basis of existing ethnographic accounts. Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed <\/span>sex appropriate behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, demeanors, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and <\/span>is<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of \"gender\" that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, access to employment, play, time use, and power\u00a0<\/span>in the public and private sphere (UNDP 1995, World Bank, 2001). Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, behaviours, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of behaviour as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, (1990); Mann, (1996); Zehol, (1998); and Kapoor et al, (2007). The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there has been more analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having higher social status than their counterparts in caste society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food and nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Singh (1973) worked on women issues and reported that, in rural India poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. Agnihotri, et al (1995) conducted a study on women\u201fs issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta (1999) worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with higher proportion of the scheduled tribes exhibit higher female participation rate. Butter (1999) reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women\u201fs economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources. Mishra and Kapoor (2001) observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Banu (2002) worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. Xaxa (2004) conducted study on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>you can view video on Gender and tribe<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/D6C6K4gXy54\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">REFERENCES\/SUGGESTED READINGS<\/strong>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Agnihotri, I. &amp; Mazumdar, V. (1995): Changing Terms of Political Discourse.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anand, A.S. (2001).Dynamics of Gender Justice. Social Welfare.Vol. 47 (10), 3-7.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Arya, A. and Kapoor, A. K. (2012). Gender and Health Management in Afro-Indians. Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhatt, S. (2001). Foeticide, The Worst Form of Femicide. Social Welfare. Vol. 47 (10) 13-16.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bird G, &amp; Melville K. (1994). Families and intimate relationships. New York (NY): Mc Grow Inc.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Butter, M.E. (1999). Sustainable Development and Women\u2019s Health, Science shops for Biology University of Groningen, Groningen.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Carroll, J.L., &amp; Wolpe, P.R. (1996). Sexuality and Gender in Society. New York, Harpen<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Collins.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chauhan, A. (1990). Tribal Women and Social Change in India. Etawah, A.C. Brothers.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cyrus, V. (1997). Gender Identity, Experiencing Race, Class and Gender in the United States. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Pg. 64-65.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Economic and Political Weekly. July, 22, Pg. 1869.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Elwin, V. (1961). Nagaland Shillong, The Research Department. Advisers Secretariat, Delhi, Gyan Publications.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Franklin, C.W. (1988). Men and Society. Chicago, nelson<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Hall Press.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Garrett.S. (1992). Gender, Pg.7.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gilmore, D. (1991). Manhood in the Making. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Haimendorf, C.V.F. (1933). Naked Nagas. Calcutta. Thancker<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, Spink and Co.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Healey, J.F. (2003). Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class, The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Indra, R. and Behera, D.K. (1999). Gender and Society in India. (Ed.). Vol. 1. Manak Publication, New Delhi<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kapoor, A.K., Misra, P., Biswas, R.K., Kumar, R.K., Tyagi, R. and Arya, A. (2007). Gender, Ethnic Groups and Development Disparity. In: Anthropology and Human Welfare. (Ed.). A.N. Sharma. Sarup and Sons, New Delhi. Pg. 10-30.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mackintosh, M. (1981). Gender and Economics, The Sexual Division of Labour and the Subordination of Women. In Kate Young, Carol Wolkouritz and Roslyn Mccullagh (Ed.) of Marriage and Market. Conference of Socialist Economists, London. Pg. 1-15.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mann, K. (1996). Tribal Women on the Threshold of Twenty-first Century. New Delhi. M.D. Publications.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Marcela, B. (1995). From a Speech on Perspective de Generio in la Alfaletization Education held in Medellin.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mead, M. (1935). Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. New York. William Morrow and London, Routledge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mehta, B.C. (1999). Gender and Regional Patterns of Work Participation in Rural Rajasthan. Manpower Journal Vol. XXXV, No.2, July September, Pg. 23.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Millet, K. (1972). Sexual Politics. London. Abascus.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mishra, P. and Kapoor, A.K. (2002). Educating Tribal Girls. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (6), Pg. 23-29.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Moore, H.L. (1988). Feminism and Anthropology. Polity Press, Cambridge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Oakley, A. (1972). Sex, Gender and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Society. London, Maurice Temple Smith.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prasad, K. (2002). Reproductive Rights for Women, Human Rights Issue. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (3), Pg. 20-23.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Reiter, R. (1975). Towards An Anthropology of Women. Monthly Review Press, New York.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Singh, Y. (1973). Modernization of Indian Tradition. Thomas Press, Pg. 39.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Soundari, M.H. Sudhir, M.A. (2003). Status of Women, Gender Disparity in Tamil Nadu. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (12) Pg. 4-27.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Strobel, M. (1996). Women in Religious and Secular Ideology. In M. Jean Hay and S. Sticher (Ed.), African Women South of Sahara. London, Longman Group Limited.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">United Nations Development Programme-UNDP. (1995). Human Development Report. New York, Oxford University Press.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">World Bank. (2001). Engendering Development. Washington DC, Wolrd Bank.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Xaxa, V. (2004). Women and Gender in the Study of Tribes in India, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Vol. 11[3] Pg. 345-367.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zapta, L.O.L. (1997). Literacy, Caught in a New Trap. Journal of Adult Education and Development IZZ-DW No. 48, Pg. 61-96.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zehol, L. (1998). Women in Naga Society. New Delhi, Regency Publications.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/D6C6K4gXy54\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Contents<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">1.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Introduction<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Gender and Culture<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">3.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tribes and Women<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">4.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Tribes and Gender Summary<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Learning objectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Through this module, one will able<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">To know about the concept of gender<\/span><\/li>\n<li>To know about the concept of tribe<\/li>\n<li>To know about the status of women in tribes<\/li>\n<li>To know the relationship between all these concepts<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0 1.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Study of Tribes in India concerns, for a focus on women in tribal <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Arya and Kapoor said that Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed sex appropriate <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">, demeanor, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and <\/span>is<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of &#8220;gender&#8221; that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, and access to employment, play, time use, and power in the public and private sphere. From the Gender <\/span>differentials<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> numerous problems emerge. To ensure gender justice through gender equality the National Policy for Empowerment of Women set its major objective to eliminate gender discrimination on <\/span>priority<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> basis. In line with this, the Tenth <\/span>five year<span style=\"font-size: 1em\"> plan India calls for a survey\/search to identify areas with gender inequalities.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is a social institution as encompassing as the four main institutions of traditional anthropology-family, economy, religion <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> symbolic language. Women and men have different gender-based roles and responsibilities in their own lives, families, households, and communities. Oakley mentioned that the word sex is used for biological <\/span>differentiation<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> between male and female. Gender is the division of people into two categories, \u201cmen\u201d and \u201cwomen\u201d. Gender is a matter of culture and refers to the social classification into \u201cMasculine\u201d and \u201cFeminine\u201d characters. We use the term \u201egender\u201f rather than \u201csex\u201d since the latter only describes biological characteristics, whereas the former-encompasses socially constructed categories of gender. The term sex and gender are sometimes used interchangeably but there is a strict distinction between them.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In Gender <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> the term \u201egender\u201f is used to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. It does not refer to <\/span>biological<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> difference, but <\/span>rather<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cultural difference.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">In the view of Bird and Melville gender is \u201cpsychological, sociological and cultural aspects of being male and female.\u201d Marcela who also defines gender as a social category that refers to and facilitates the analysis of the different roles, responsibilities, rights and opportunities and limitations of men and women within the family, the community, the society, the culture etc. Gender is a social construct while sex is a biological condition. Gender refers to the beliefs, personality traits, attitudes, sentiments and values, conducts and activities that distinguish men from women through a process of social formation that demonstrates specific characteristics. When we speak about Gender we are referring to the experiences of both men and women. Gender refers to the different social and cultural roles, expectations, and constraints placed upon men and women by virtue of their sex. It also refers to the differences and relations between men and women, that are learned, vary widely within and between cultures and which are changeable over time. In <\/span>fact<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> it is the gender that determines the position of male and female in society.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender refers to the different social roles that women and men play, and the power relations between them. Gender relations influence how communities, households, and institutions are organized, how decisions are made, and how resources are used. Gender studies are sometimes related to studies of class, race, ethnicity, and location.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is omnipresent in the formation and in the studies of humanities and social sciences. The recognition of research problems, <\/span>definition<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of scientific objects, and theoretical models of explanation, and furthermore, the distribution of innovative or risky outcomes is embedded in social-science and humanities where gender plays a central role. Gender interacts with life sciences mediated by social structures, symbolical representations <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> individual experiences. The agenda of gender research is correspondingly broad and ranges from the utilization of environmental resources (energy and water), the design of spaces and mobility organization to the management of knowledge, information <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> communication. It includes the politics of bodies, health <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> sustenance. In order to come to terms with these dynamical complexities the interdisciplinary of women\u201fs and gender studies <\/span>needs<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to be developed further and broadened in order to engage with the fields of science, social sciences <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> different cultures. It also arose with the feminist critique that questioned women\u201fs \u201eanalytical visibility\u201f as well as \u201erepresentation\u201f of women in traditional anthropological studies and <\/span>expose<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> male bias in the anthropological interpretation. Conventional anthropological studies have been strongly consumed for trivializing women\u201fs activities, relying on male informants to know their women.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The study of variation in gender and gender roles across different cultures have been shaped by the symbolic and sociological approaches. The symbolic approach <\/span>use<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> cultural variation and ideology to analyze gender symbolism and sex stereotypes. The sociological approach influenced by Marxism uses economic relation of production to study gender and to explain issues like status and subordination of\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">women, which it does not see as a universal fact. In the past, these approaches have been used independently. But today, a combination of both is being used since it is being realized that these approaches are mutually inclusive and when one is used independently on the other it is found to be inadequate. In 1978, <\/span>Indian<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Anthropological Society brought out a region wise survey of tribal women. It points out that studies of women have either been ignored or, when discussed, such discussions have been brief and sketchy. Except in some works by Elwin, Van Furer Haimendorf and a few others, there has been no explicit discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Even in these, the assessment on the status of women has been far from uniform. While some say that tribal societies generally assigned <\/span>high<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> status to women, others opine that women&#8217;s position in tribal society is the same as in other societies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">2.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender and Culture<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. Gilmore observed that the culture must socialize its women to be obedient and except a position in the hierarchy that is subservient to its males. Carroll et al worked on gender and culture and finds out those gender roles may be seen as the constellation of <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> a culture aims appropriate for males and females and may include the attitude and emotion that are seen as fundamental to bring a man or <\/span>a women<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. Cyrus observed that feminine <\/span>behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> is characterized by passivity, domesticity, dependency, emotion expressiveness, and a preoccupation with one\u201fs physical appearance, the presence of nurturing and maternal instincts.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">3.\u00a0 Tribes and Women<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, Mann, Zehol, and Kapoor et al<\/span>,.<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there <\/span>has<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> been <\/span>more<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having <\/span>higher<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> social status than\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">their counterparts in <\/span>caste<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food <\/span>and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Mead in her classic study \u201eSex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies\u201f challenged that gender differences not only vary across cultures but within a culture they differ over time. Millet mentioned that principle of patriarchy <\/span>appear<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> to be two-fold. Male shall dominate females, elder male shall dominate younger. Indra et al found that in India, both in the upper and the lower caste, the girl children are discriminated against boys, ranked unequally with lower status and prevented from realizing their full potential. Anand recorded that gender justice means <\/span>rights<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> of women against exploitation and victimization. For women, who are victims of criminal assault, the material wealth and status symbols have no meaning. Bhatt (2001) observed that women in our country suffer from lack of awareness of their rights, illiteracy, oppressive practices and customs. In India, it has been computed that about six million abortions take place every year. Prasad recorded that women\u201fs lack of control over their own sexuality and fertility remains one of the most threatening aspects of their lives. Gender role ideologies subjugate women to patriarchal and traditional forces, girls and women, who defy gender expectations particularly with respect to family roles, are faced with harsh social penalties. Soundari and Sudhir (2003) claimed that women bear primary responsibilities for the well-being of their families yet they are discriminated systematically and denied access to resources such as education, health care services, job training etc.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">4.<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Tribes and Gender<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Singh worked on women issues and reported <\/span>that,<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> in rural <\/span>India<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. The sufferings of women were many times greater than the sufferings of men. Agnihotri, et al conducted a study on women\u201fs issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with <\/span>higher<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> proportion of the scheduled tribes <\/span>exhibit<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> higher female participation rate. Butter reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women\u201fs economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Concern for a focus on women in tribal studies has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Mishra and Kapoor observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Arya &amp; Kapoor worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. In caste <\/span>society<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> women suffer from rape, dowry, <\/span>crime<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> against women, political violence whereas in tribal societies women work harder than men and they have no share in land and they are beaten badly also. Xaxa conducted <\/span>study<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Study of Tribes in India concerns, for a focus on women in tribal <\/span>studies<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women\u201fs issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With <\/span>this<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women\u201fs status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching. The article attempts to highlight the issues involved on the basis of existing ethnographic accounts. Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed <\/span>sex appropriate behaviour<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, demeanors, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and <\/span>is<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of &#8220;gender&#8221; that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, access to employment, play, time use, and power\u00a0<\/span>in the public and private sphere (UNDP 1995, World Bank, 2001). Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, behaviours, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of behaviour as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, (1990); Mann, (1996); Zehol, (1998); and Kapoor et al, (2007). The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there has been more analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having higher social status than their counterparts in caste society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food and nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Singh (1973) worked on women issues and reported that, in rural India poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. Agnihotri, et al (1995) conducted a study on women\u201fs issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta (1999) worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with higher proportion of the scheduled tribes exhibit higher female participation rate. Butter (1999) reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women\u201fs economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources. Mishra and Kapoor (2001) observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Banu (2002) worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. Xaxa (2004) conducted study on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>you can view video on Gender and tribe<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/D6C6K4gXy54\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"36\" height=\"36\" \/><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">REFERENCES\/SUGGESTED READINGS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Agnihotri, I. &amp; Mazumdar, V. (1995): Changing Terms of Political Discourse.<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Anand, A.S. (2001).Dynamics of Gender Justice. Social Welfare.Vol. 47 (10), 3-7.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Arya, A. and Kapoor, A. K. (2012). Gender and Health Management in Afro-Indians. Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bhatt, S. (2001). Foeticide, The Worst Form of Femicide. Social Welfare. Vol. 47 (10) 13-16.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Bird G, &amp; Melville K. (1994). Families and intimate relationships. New York (NY): Mc Grow Inc.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Butter, M.E. (1999). Sustainable Development and Women\u2019s Health, Science shops for Biology University of Groningen, Groningen.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Carroll, J.L., &amp; Wolpe, P.R. (1996). Sexuality and Gender in Society. New York, Harpen<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Collins.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Chauhan, A. (1990). Tribal Women and Social Change in India. Etawah, A.C. Brothers.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Cyrus, V. (1997). Gender Identity, Experiencing Race, Class and Gender in the United States. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Pg. 64-65.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Economic and Political Weekly. July, 22, Pg. 1869.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Elwin, V. (1961). Nagaland Shillong, The Research Department. Advisers Secretariat, Delhi, Gyan Publications.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Franklin, C.W. (1988). Men and Society. Chicago, nelson<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Hall Press.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Garrett.S. (1992). Gender, Pg.7.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Gilmore, D. (1991). Manhood in the Making. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Haimendorf, C.V.F. (1933). Naked Nagas. Calcutta. Thancker<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, Spink and Co.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Healey, J.F. (2003). Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class, The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Indra, R. and Behera, D.K. (1999). Gender and Society in India. (Ed.). Vol. 1. Manak Publication, New Delhi<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Kapoor, A.K., Misra, P., Biswas, R.K., Kumar, R.K., Tyagi, R. and Arya, A. (2007). Gender, Ethnic Groups and Development Disparity. In: Anthropology and Human Welfare. (Ed.). A.N. Sharma. Sarup and Sons, New Delhi. Pg. 10-30.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mackintosh, M. (1981). Gender and Economics, The Sexual Division of Labour and the Subordination of Women. In Kate Young, Carol Wolkouritz and Roslyn Mccullagh (Ed.) of Marriage and Market. Conference of Socialist Economists, London. Pg. 1-15.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mann, K. (1996). Tribal Women on the Threshold of Twenty-first Century. New Delhi. M.D. Publications.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Marcela, B. (1995). From a Speech on Perspective de Generio in la Alfaletization Education held in Medellin.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mead, M. (1935). Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. New York. William Morrow and London, Routledge.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mehta, B.C. (1999). Gender and Regional Patterns of Work Participation in Rural Rajasthan. Manpower Journal Vol. XXXV, No.2, July September, Pg. 23.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Millet, K. (1972). Sexual Politics. London. Abascus.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Mishra, P. and Kapoor, A.K. (2002). Educating Tribal Girls. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (6), Pg. 23-29.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Moore, H.L. (1988). Feminism and Anthropology. Polity Press, Cambridge.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Oakley, A. (1972). Sex, Gender and<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> Society. London, Maurice Temple Smith.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Prasad, K. (2002). Reproductive Rights for Women, Human Rights Issue. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (3), Pg. 20-23.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Reiter, R. (1975). Towards An Anthropology of Women. Monthly Review Press, New York.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Singh, Y. (1973). Modernization of Indian Tradition. Thomas Press, Pg. 39.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Soundari, M.H. Sudhir, M.A. (2003). Status of Women, Gender Disparity in Tamil Nadu. Social Welfare. Vol. 49 (12) Pg. 4-27.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Strobel, M. (1996). Women in Religious and Secular Ideology. In M. Jean Hay and S. Sticher (Ed.), African Women South of Sahara. London, Longman Group Limited.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">United Nations Development Programme-UNDP. (1995). Human Development Report. New York, Oxford University Press.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">World Bank. (2001). Engendering Development. Washington DC, Wolrd Bank.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Xaxa, V. (2004). Women and Gender in the Study of Tribes in India, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, Vol. 11[3] Pg. 345-367.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zapta, L.O.L. (1997). Literacy, Caught in a New Trap. Journal of Adult Education and Development IZZ-DW No. 48, Pg. 61-96.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Zehol, L. (1998). Women in Naga Society. New Delhi, Regency Publications.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dr-vijeta"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[68],"license":[],"class_list":["post-151","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dr-vijeta"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/151","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/151\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":158,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/151\/revisions\/158"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/151\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=151"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=151"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=151"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp05\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=151"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}