5 Tribes in India: antiquity, historical, academic, administrative and anthropological importance

Vineet Verma

Table of Content

Introduction

General Profile of Tribal India

History of Tribal India

Anthropological concerns in study of Tribal’s

History of Tribal Administration

• Planned change in British tribal India
• Planned change in free India

    Strategies for Development in Tribal’s Areas

Post Independence Transformation of Tribal’s Society

Summary

Learning Objective

• To able to define an exclusive social and structural account of the Tribal people in India.
• An attempt to classify the course of historical development, academic, and Anthropological importance in terms of Tribal studies.
• To be able to define the immense significance of the tribal administration.
• To able to define the process of examining source integrated approach to the study of Tribal communities
• To able to define the concept and full length account of tribe culture in India that have been made in Trial Anthropology
• To able to trace the social  structure and organization of tribal population in India

    Introduction

India is known to be a vast country with scanty population in the prehistoric age. During this period there were small groups of people scattered throughout the country in different spots. The Tribal culture blooms in the isolated highlands and forests of India. The tribal’s are an integral part of the Indian population. Their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious beliefs are long association with the Indian society. Tribal’s are tied up with land and forests and characterised by their own language and heritage, love for freedom and self identity.

India is one of the few nations of tribal concentration and is also said to have the largest tribal population. Tribal’s in India reflect the wider kaleidoscopic nature of Indian society, which in one hand is rooted in ancient traditions whereas on the other hand forces of modernization are working in tandem. The Tribal’s are organically interlinked society which has evolved through t imes. It is a reality that mirrors the very heart of India. Tribal are the centres of self-sufficiency, embodiment of collectivism. Though Tribal’s society is still rooted in age old customs, feudalism the process of modern participative the principle of equality. The effectiveness of participative institution provides the basis of redistribution and egalitarianism which is the feature of a Tribal’s society. The tribal culture of India is moulding itself, slowly but steadily, to find its niche in the national mainstream of culture.

General Profile of Tribal India

Tribal peoples form a major segment of the world population. They are found all over the world. They are called by different names such as “primitive, ‘tribal,’ ‘indigenous,’ ‘aboriginal,’ ‘native,’ and so on. India has a large number of tribal people. India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India’s population, constituting 8 percent of her’ total population (Census, 2001), is “varied in terms of socio-economic and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other. The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.

The major tribes in India are the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santals, the Oraons and the Minas. They live in different regions in the forest as well as in urban areas, and mostly speak their own languages. The states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and the Northeastern Region have a larger concentration of tribal population. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also inhabited by several tribes such as the Great Andamanese, Sentenelese, Onges, Jarwas, Sompens, and so on.

Prior to the caste system, people were divided into different tribes. At that time, each tribe was a homogenous and self-contained unit without any hierarchical discrimination. Each tribe had a chief for its protection. Gradually, the chief assumed political and military power and was recognized as the ruler. Thus, there emerged the republics and monarchies. Tribes were associated with large kingdoms. Each tribe had its own system of administration. There was decentralization of authority among the tribes. The traditional tribal institutions were vested with legislative, judicial and executive powers.

History of Tribal India

Tribal’s have a long and rich cultural past. Their history goes back to the prehistoric period. Unfortunately, because they lack a written tradition, it is difficult for historians and anthropologists to chronicle their past. It is said that even the subsequent history of the tribal’s up to the Aryan invasion is shrouded in obscurity. The Aborigines of India do not form a uniform race. They come from various regions of Asia and they belong to various races, as mentioned earlier. Knowledge about the origin and subsequent history of the numerous tribes is vague. However, their story of glory and decline can be reconstructed.

• The invention of script and the commencement of written records are helpful in this regard. Some scholars believe that the builders of the Indus valley civilization might have been the aboriginal people.
• The ancient scriptures of the Vedic period contain some references to the tribals. The Vedic period witnessed the pouring in of the Aryans from the North-western parts of India and their fighting against the non-Aryans. In the later Vedic period (1000 to 600 BC), the fusion of the Aryan and the non-Aryan continued.
• Thus the process of downgrading of the tribal’s continued. The tribes in this process of assimilation started being assigned tasks of the lower order, which might have gradually led to the creation of the lower caste referred to as ‘Sudra’.
• During the feudal period (400-1000 AD), the tribal areas were invaded by the non-tribal’s. During this period, the process of Sanskritization affected the tribal chiefs. The Brahmin priests prepared suitable genealogies for themselves and the ruling Brahmin class spearheaded the process of Sanskritization as expressed and popularized by M. N. Srinivas.
• Apart from the Moghuls, the other groups who disturbed the tribal regions were the Persians, the Greeks, the Sakas, the Huns and other hordes of nomadic invaders who came periodically from the Northwest.

   From the foregoing account it seems safe to infer that tribal history is marked by struggle and subjugation by outsiders.

Anthropological concerns in study of Tribal’s

The study of tribal’s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. Anthropologists and development planners take cognizance of the tribal tradition and way of life lest the overwhelming non tribal culture swamps their pristine, grass root culture. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to the attempts, made by European colonists, travellers, explorers, and missionaries to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in Africa, Asia, Australia and the rest of the world. These forest and hill dwelling savages were called tribes to differentiate them from other civilised people. The colourful mosaic of tribal culture with their exotic customs and rituals, apparel and adornment, song and dance, will continue to attract the scholars of various discipline.

Tribal studies is though not an exclusive task of anthropologists alone, as any developmental work should be done through multidisciplinary, approach nevertheless, anthropology play greater role in this context is also equally true. Of all the social sciences anthropology has the distinction of having field work tradition. Rigorous training in the field enables anthropologists to be more familiar with the tribal and rural environment than others. An anthropologist collects data maximum through participant observation method i.e. by living among the natives for a long span times. Thus an anthropologist does certainly have more experience of tribal life; he is better position not only to understand tribal or rural position but also suggest solution for them.

It was during the colonial period that the tribal’s were studied by scholars and designated as ‘tribal’s.’ A number of administrators and anthropologists who were engaged in studying the tribes provided classified information about the tribal’s and their population. A series of definition have been offered by the earlier Anthropologists like Morgan, Tylor, Perry, Rivers, and Lowie to cover a social group known as tribe. These definitions are, by no means complete and these professional Anthropologists have not been able to develop a set of precise indices to classify groups as ‘tribal’ or ‘non tribal’. In fact it appears that the dozens of definition and characteristics of ‘tribe’ floating around in anthropological literature are as diverse as the field situation encountered by those proposing the definitions.

• A look in to the applied aspect of anthropology suggests that anthropologists have always helped the administration in solving the tribal problems. As early in 1936 E.E. Evans Pritchard appropriately studied the problems of Tribal people and suggested the British government how it could consolidate its colonial rule without facing any resistance from the native people. After the experience of Evans Pritchard’s study the British government made it mandatory for its officer to undergo a course of training in social cultural anthropology before his posting in tribal areas.
• Prof. Sol Tax introduced a new term viz. Action Anthropology; whereas the role of applied anthropology was merely that of ‘an adviser’ in action anthropology the entire financial and administrative powers were granted to anthropologist for tribal development.
• Having been inspired by the work of Sol Tax a number of Indian anthropologists began action anthropological research in India. Notable among them are Prof. L.P. Vidyarthi and Prof P.K. Bhowmik. Prof. Vidyarthi introduced action anthropology research programme among the tribes of Bihar.
• Vidyarthi in his book “Applied Anthropology in India” suggested that an anthropologist was not merely a ‘social doctor’ who diagnosed the evils of society but also a ‘social engineer’ who could successfully reconstruct healthy society. The assertion of Prof. Vidyarthi is based upon two exclusive characteristics of the science of man. First of all anthropologists studies a social phenomenon with ‘scientific objectivity’ and Secondly an anthropologists while studying a society maintains ‘cultural relativism’

    History of Tribal Administration

The advent of industrial revolution and consequent urban exploitation particularly in the tribal belt of middle India, make the situation more complicated. In historical times, it were British rulers who for the first time, extended the arms of government most seriously to the inaccessible hilly region which were consigned to oblivion.

    The tribal administration policies can fully be appreciated in two phases:

I)  Planned change in British tribal India

II)  Planned change in free India

I) Planned change in British tribal India

The British tribal India administration policies were framed to isolate tribal’s from the main stream of national life.

In 1774, under the provision of Regulating Act 1773, special tasks were started for bringing transformation in socio-cultural life of the tribal’s and bringing them under the pale of civilization. The administration ruling these part of country were non regulatory. In 1833, Lord William Bentick regarded tribal areas to be guided by their own primitive laws and under the Governor-General Council. They were not motivated by utilitarianism and humanism which were considered most desirable. Against military administrators in the turbulent tribal areas, the peaceful and non-turbulent regions were governed by regulatory rules where the officers discharged both judiciary and revenue duties.

The Christian missionaries also came in with the patronage of the government. They spread Christianity among the tribal’s, and helped them with health care and education. Christianity preached less complicated beliefs and rituals and egalitarian principles as opposed to the caste-ridden Hindu society. It did not appeal to the tribal’s immediately but slowly they embraced it. After the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, Christianity got official patronage and spread speedily among the tribal.

The national leaders were anxious to reintegrate the tribal society with the mainstream of national life; they raised protest against the British policy of isolation. Thakkar, Dalton, Risley, Grigson, Hutton, S.C. Roy, B.S. Guha, Verrier Elwin; Missionaries like Wood Mishap, Nostrol and our leaders adopted better administrative policies for tribal development in India.

II) Planned change in free India

The Constituent Assembly in free India accepted tribal problems which became an integral part of the development of the people as a whole. The administrative policies became not of isolation of tribal instead, to integrate them in the mainstream of our national life. The Central as well as State adopted legislative, protective and promotive policies for the development of the tribal’s. The political awakening, renewed with the elections to local bodies and the state and central legislatures is giving new dimensions to tribal polity. The impact is being felt at the political and administrative power centres.

Articles like 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 35, 46, 244, 275, 330, 332, 334, 335, 338, 341, 342, 366, 371, A, B, C AND Fifth and Sixth Schedules regarding the safeguards for the tribal were implemented in free India under direction of our constitution. Besides these legislative policies, the government at centre and state adopted protective measures. Under these protective measures, non tribals have been banned to penetrate in tribal areas without prior permission of the governments. In addition to that number of other Acts and programmes were introduced among the tribal’s to solve their problems of land alienation, education, employment, indebtedness, health and sanitation. Thus the former policy of their isolation and segregation was finally abandoned. According to the constitutional provision certain tribes were listed as Scheduled Tribes and special facilities were to be provided for their uplift and education.

Tribal are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of Tribal’s folk. The unequal distribution of assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall Tribal development. They are deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health.

• The anti -poverty and development programmes has not percolated to the real beneficiary.
• The problem of disguised labour is prevalent in agriculture.
• Lack of other employment avenues due lack of requisite skills and technical education.
• Irrigational facilities are not available in major areas. Dependence on rainfall and groundwater extraction has cause a detrimental effect on agricultural practices
• Low agricultural poverty due to dependence on traditional methods of farming techniques.
• Poor quality of livestock.
• Poor quality of education and lack of skill development.
• Absence of dynamic community leadership.
• Presence of liquor and unwanted expansive social spending on rituals, customs etc.

   Under the promotive and welfare policy of tribal development the central and state government started many programmes such as

• Modified Area Development Approach (MADA),
• Tribal Development Blocks (TDB),
• Integral Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
• Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programmes (RLEGP),
• Large Scale Agricultures Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS),
• Community Development Programmes (CDP),
• Small Farmer’s Development Agencies (SFDA),
• Marginal Farmers and Agricultures Labourers Development Agencies (MFAL),
• Drought Prone Area Programmes (DPAP), and
• Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM)

   Union and state governments have made efforts to raise the level of tribal living at par with the other citizens; aimed at inhabitants, have taken special care to protect and preserve the tribal culture. In tribal area, where the tribal economy revolves around forests and forest based produce, the forestry based programmes have to be devised as to be in consonance with the socioeconomic fabric tribal culture and ethos. Economic development of tribal population, without cultural oppression or giving offence to their heritage or ethos will remain a challenging task for years to come.

Strategies for Development in Tribal’s Areas

• The formal credit institution should be properly strengthened.
• Poverty alleviation programmes should be properly targeted so the benefits reach the needy ones.
• Focus should be given on integrated approach of human development by focussing on health, nutrition, sanitation and skill development.
• Creating social awareness to arrest increasing debt growth among the poor.
• Financial literacy must be propagated and banking facilities must be introduced with right earnest.
• Diversifying farming activities to animal husbandry, poultry, fishing and dairy farming.
• Steps should be taken to empower women by skill training, education, handicraft, financial training so that they can be part of the developmental process.

   The number of tribal community is very large e.g. Santhals, Kora people, Kol, etc. most of whom fall under scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and other backward classes. Most of the projects and efforts for uplifting their health, education and economic condition have failed both for their own unwillingness for change and absolute non cooperation as well as lethargy, dishonesty and corruption of the intermediaries.

    Post Independence Transformation of Tribal’s Society

The post-independence period has shown a dynamic shift in Tribal’s society. The increase use of agricultural labour, shift in mode of payment from kind to cash and presence of free wage labourers were evident in these Tribal’s areas. The commercialisation of agriculture has brought about a capitalistic mode of production to this sector. The Tribal’s men were used as a mere means of production. As farm sector growth took place the Tribal’s society was integrated to the market economy. The flow of capital led to diversification of business and employment opportunities. The transformation of Tribal’s society began during colonial period but it gain momentum during post-independence period due to intervention of government policies. Development of irrigation, rural infrastructure, input fertilizers; formal credit mechanism through banks and co-operatives for agricultural growth prompted these changes. These policies not only transform the Tribal’s economy but also Tribal’s social system. The transformation of Tribal’s society was regionally imbalanced and varied across India.

The impact of globalisation had its impact on social customs and traditions; the westernization of culture has led to erosion of traditional values and customs. The impact of global media has brought about a tectonic shift in the culture and thought process of Indian Tribal’s life. The globalisation process has brought about aspiration changes in the mind of Tribal’s people.

Summary

Tribals have come a long way. Their situation has been changing. With the facilities available to them, their situation is improving to some extent. It remains a great job for the State and Central Government to bring tribes into confidence, educate them, clad them, take health care and arrange for their living by developing skill. The tribal culture of India has undergone changes owing to several factors, such as impact of education introduce by missionaries or Government, development of various communication etc; nevertheless, the greatest impact has been that of industrialization and urbanization. The obvious reason for this has been that the tribal area throughout the country are very rich as for as the mineral and the industrial resources are concerned.

In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.

   Know More / Web Resources

SUGGESTED READING

Books that can be consulted for a more in-depth consideration of nonhuman skeletal biology

• Dev Nathan, 1997, From Tribe to Caste, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
• Ghurye, G.S., 1963, The Scheduled Tribe, Popular Book Depot.
• Mathur, K.S. & Agarwal, B.C., 1974, Tribe Caste and Peasantry, Lucknow, Ethnographic & Folkculture Society.
• Saraswati, B.N., 1997, ‘Tribes as Caste’ in From Tribe to Caste edited by Dev Nathan, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
• Beteille, Andre, 1974, Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Delhi, Oxford University Press
• Dube, S.C., 1990, Indian Society, New Delhi, National Book Trust
• Hasnain, Nadeem, 2004, Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, New Delhi, Jawahar Publishers and Distributors
• Vidyarthi, L.P. & Rai, B.K., 1985, Tribal Cultures of India, New Delhi, Concept Publishing House.

    REFERENCES

• Bardhan ed. Conversations Between Economists and Anthropologists, Delhi, OUP.
• Beteille, A and T.N. Madan (1975) ed. Encounters and Experience: Personal Accounts of Fieldwork, Delhi, Vikas.
• Bhalla Surjit (2011), “Inclusion and Growth in India: Some Facts, Some Conclusions”,  Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.39
• Bliss Christopher and Nicholas Stern (1982), “Palanpur: The Economy of an Indian Village”, Oxford University Press, Delhi
• Cohn, B.S. (1987), An Anthropologist among Historian and other Essays, Delhi.
• Dube, S.C. (1955), Indian Village, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Himanshu, Ishan Bakshi and Camille Dufour (2011), “Poverty, Inequality and Mobility in Palanpur: Some Preliminary Results”, Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.45
• Kala, C.P. (2011). Indigenous uses and sustainable harvesting of trees by local people in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve of India. J. Med. Arom. Plants, ISSN 2249-4340, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.153-161.
• Louis, P. (2000). “Marginalisation of Tribals.” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.35. No.47: pp. 4087-4091.
• Mahapatra, S. (1997). The Celebration of Life. Tribal Language and Culture of Orissa. K. Mahapatra (Ed.) Bhubaneswar: Academy of Tribal Dialects and Culture, Government of Orissa.
• Malyadri,  P.  (2012)  “Education  for  tribal  children:  An  engine  for  human  development” International Journal of Research Studies in Education, Volume 1 Number 1, pp. 99-106.
• Pal, T. (2011). “Changing Tribal Culture: A Photo-Geographical Explanation” Current Research Journal of Social Science, Volume: 3, Issue: 6, pp. 483-489.
• Pasayat, C. (2003). Glimpses of Tribal and Folk Culture. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd
• Singh, K.S. (1982). “Transform of Tribal Society.” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.17. No34: pp1376-1384.
• Vidyarthi, L. P. (1979). Rise of Anthropology in India: a Social Science Orientation, Volume 1. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
• Vidyatrhi, L. P & Rai, (1977). The Tribal Culture of India. Edition 2. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
• Walton Michael (2011), “Inequality, Rents and the Long-run Transformation of India” Processed
• World Bank (2011), “Perspectives on Poverty in India: Stylized Facts from Survey Data” World Bank, Washington D C

    GLOSSARY

• Zamindar: Landlord.
• Sudra: The lowest of the four main Hindu cast.
• Village: A group of houses and associated buildings, larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town, situated in a rural area
• Panchayat: A gram panchayat is the cornerstone of a local self-government organisation in India of the Panchayati raj system at the village or small town level, and has a Sarpanch as its elected head.
• Family: A family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by marriage),
• Caste: Caste is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, non–commensality and hereditary occupations. According to Human Rights Watch and UNICEF, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide.

    DID YOU KNOW?

• The constitution of India identifies the indigenous peoples as “tribes”. According to the 2001 Census, India has a tribal population of 8.2% of its total population.
• The children in the age group of 0-6 constitute 20.18% of the Scheduled Tribe population in India as against 17.94% for the total population of India