8 Tribal Language Families in India

Kanato Chophy

Introduction

India is marked for its remarkable linguistic diversity hosting the important language families of the world. The People’s Linguistic Survey of India has estimated a total of 780 languages diversely scattered in different geographical regions from the arid Thar region in Rajasthan to the sub-Himalayan mountainous region to the oceanic zone in the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The Indian subcontinent has been home to innumerable human groups coming in waves of migration spread over thousands of years; and the enormous linguistic diversity attest to this fact. At least in Europe the idea of nation was founded on the principle of common language like English, French and German. The same cannot be said of India because despite the increasing widespread use of Hindi—which has been enlisted as ‘official language’ along with English for administrative and parliamentary transactions, the Indian constitution does not recognise any specificpan-Indian national language; rather, a total of 22 languages has been enshrined in the Eight Schedule of Indian constitution as official languages, and the inclusion of more languages is anticipated. The notion of language and regionalism is of significance in the Indian social reality; for instance, Indian languages like Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi and Telegu are associated with regional states like West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. However, in most North Eastern states the languages are diverse and therefore a single language accounting for the entire state is not found, and also the imposition of a single language on diverse ethnic groups would have far-reaching implications. In the state of Manipur alone, roughly 30 above tribal languages are spoken aside English, Hindi and Manipuri—the lingua franca of the Meitei people in the Imphal valley; Nagaland accounts for about 18 major tribal languages besides their numerous branches and sub-branches; and Arunachal Pradesh accounts for more than 50 tribal languages. These tribal languages also posit as unique identity marker in the sense that Adi, Angami, Apatani, Ao, Lotha and Sumi, etc., are ethno-linguistic category denoting both the ethnic group as well as language.

The total distinct languages spoken in the world today is estimated around 7000; here, the African continent and the Indian subcontinent alone accounts for more than 1000 native languages each. However, the tremendous linguistic diversity is found among the indigenous populations in the island of New Guinea, where more than 1000 languages are crammed into a region little bigger than twice the size of Rajasthan. This attest to the fact that linguistic diversity is more pronounced among the tribal populations which is marked by great heterogeneity as compared to the more homogenous groups in Europe, where all of Europe west of Russia has less than 100 native languages. In the midst of tremendous linguistic diversity in India, the tribal languages both in diversity and distribution have enriched the Indian linguistic situation.

Distribution of tribal language families in India

The tribal languages are classified into four main language families: Austric, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan). It is important to mention that although tribes are classified on the basis of linguistic categories, the definition of Indian tribes based on language families is not found, since one of the important characterisations of tribes is speaking common language, not speaking a particular language family. In this context, the tribal groups belonging to Indo-Aryan-language family account for a little over 1 per cent, a little above 3 per cent belongs to the Dravidian-language family, while over 80 per cent of the Tibeto-Burman-language speaking groups have been identified as tribes, and the entire Austric-language-speaking communities have been identified as tribes. With respect to geographical distribution of tribal language families, the Dravidian speakers are mostly distributed in South India and Central India; the Austric-speaking tribal groups are mostly distributed in Middle India, the Andaman Islands, and sparsely in North East India; the Tibeto-Burman-speaking communities are located in North East India; and the Indo-Aryan-speaking groups are sparsely distributed in certain pockets of Middle India and North-West India.

1. Austric– According to the Lingustic Survey of India (LSI), the tribal languages falling within Austric family are Munda languages and Mon Khmer, which constitute branches of the Austro-Asiatic division (the other division being the Austro-Nesian languages) of the great Austric family. The Munda Branch comprises of 14 tribal languages spoken largely in Santhal Parganas and Chotanagpur region of Jharkhand, Kondhmahal and Mayurbhanj in Orissa, Betul in Maharashtra, and to some extent in pockets of Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, and Terai region of Himalayas. George Grierson in his important contribution identified eight autonomous Munda languages further branching into different dialects. He used the common term Kherwari to name different dialects spoken especially toward the northeastern region of Central Indian Plateau and the adjoining areas, the important ones being Bhumij, Ho, Korwa, Mundari and Santhali. The important Munda languages identified are Asuri, Birhor, Gadaba, Juang, Kharia, Koda, Kurku, Savara and Turi.

The distribution of Mon-Khmer branch is geographically distant, and is represented by two languages: Khasi in Meghalaya and Nicobarese in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

2.   Dravidian- By comparison, the distribution of Dravidian language family is less diverse with the other language families. However, this language is spoken by a large chunk of population in the Indian mainland. Generally this language is broadly classified into Central Dravidian group and Southern Dravidian group. The earliest classification of LSI based on Caldwell’s study identified two sub-divisions: Dravida language and Andhra language. The Dravida language includes Gondi, Kanarese, Kodagu, Kota, Kui, Kurukh, Tamil, Toda, Tulu, Malto and Malayalam; whle the Andhra language include Brahui, Kolami and Telegu. The Dravidian languages are distributed mainly in Deccan Plateau and the adjoining coastal plains. This language family also demarcates the state boundaries of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala in terms of the language spoken.

The tribal populations speaking languages falling under Dravidian family inhabit primarily the southern part of India and middle India. With respect to tribals belonging to Dravidian language family, Gondi speakers comprise the largest group scattered diversely across Madhya Pradesh to Andhra Pradesh. In Central India, some important Dravidian languages are Kui spoken by the Kondh of Orissa, Kurukh spoken by the Oraon and Malto spoken by tribes of Rajmahal hills. Among the tribes of South India, the languages of the Badaga, Chenchu, Irula, Kadar and Toda, etc., are included in the Dravidian language family.

3. Tibeto-Burman- The Tibeto-Burman speakers in India are mostly confined along the Himalayan belt contiguous with the international boundaries. The Tibeto-Burmese language are said to have entered India from the mountainous region in the north and spread all along the Himalayas. The tribal groups speaking The Tibeto-Burman languages belong to the Mongoloid stock mostly inhabiting the North East region of India. The Tibeto-Burman family languages are considered to be a branch of the larger Sino-Tibetan family, which covers a large area extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam, Indo-China and parts of eastern China.

Generally Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Chinese family is further divided into two groups: Tai and Tibeto-Burman. The Tai group includes the diminishing Ahom language of Assam, Khampti and Phakial, etc. The Tibeto-Burman group is further divided into Tibeto-Himalayan branch, North Assam or Arunachal branch, and Assam-Burmese branch. The Tibeto-Himalayan branch has two sections: Bhotia and Himalayan. The Bhotia section include Ladakhi, Lahauli, Sherpa and Sikkim Bhutia; while the Himalayan section importantly include Lepcha, Toto and Rong, etc.

The Arunachal branch includes Adi, Apatani, Mishing and Miri, etc. While the Assam-Burmese branch further include sections like Bodo, Naga, Kachin and Kuki-Chin. The Bodo section includes Dimasa, Garo, Kachari, Tripuri, etc.; the Naga section includes Ao, Angami, Rengma, Sumi and Lotha, etc.; the Kachin section can be represented by Singpho; while the Kuki-Chin section includes Lushai, Thado, Ralte, Sokte and Manipuri, etc.

4. Indo-Aryan- The Indo-Aryan speakers comprise the largest group in India with an estimated two third of Indian population speaking one or other form of Indo-Aryan language. However, the tribal speakers of Indo-Aryan language are comparatively smaller, and mostly are interspersed with the dominant Indo-Aryan groups, or overlap with the major language. In distribution, the Indo-Aryan languages are widely spread from Kashmir to Konkan coast, and from Gujarat to Assam. Some of the tribal communities belonging to Indo-European language family are Bhils of Rajasthan, Warli of Maharashtra, and Hajong of Meghalaya. Studies suggest that the earlier Dravidian speakers adopted the Indo-Aryan speech from the arriving dominant Indo-Aryan speakers, or were pushed southwards or were converted to Indo-European language family. This is indicative among the southern Indo-European speakers like the Banjaras and Pardhis who are nomadic tribes with a well-recorded history of migration from Rajasthan few centuries ago.

Multilingualism and tribal languages

The definition of tribes as speaking a specific dialect is debatable and problematic in the Indian context. The Kond and Paraja of South Odisha speak Oriya along with Kui and Parji, the Santhals of Santhal Parganas speak Bengali and Hindi along with Santhali, the Chencus and Koyas speak Telegu along with their indigenous language, while the Naga tribes usually speak Nagamese and the language of their neighbouring tribes aside their mother tongue, and the similar feature is found among other Indian tribes. Studies also reveal that there exist a communication language, which is a language of tribes or dominant communities, but a regional language. For instance, in South Odisha most of the tribes know three languages: language specific to the group, the dominant language of their neighbours (Oriya), and ‘Desiabhasa’ that is the regional language, which is translated as folk language and is different from all.

Not every endangered tribal language is due to isolation like among the Andaman islanders or decline in population like the Toto and foraging tribes. Conversely, the immense linguistic diversity and multilingual condition has led to sharp decline in language like Kurukh with millions of populations. Multilingualism is an important feature among the tribal groups influencing not only the nature of tribal languages but also the socio-cultural transactions. For instance, an average Oraon may speak Hindi, Nagpuri, Sadri, and even the indigenous language of neighbouring tribes besides Kurukh. Studies have shown that the cluster of languages spoken aside the mother tongue tend to show regional differences even among the same tribal groups. Thus an Oraon and Santhal tea garden tribes in Assam would speak Assamese and other regional languages other than Kurukh and Santhali, which would differ substantially from the Oraons and Santhals of Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas. This is of significance in the multilingual context since the speakers use different linguistic codes switching from one to other during the course of conversation. Thus the adaptation, resilience and diminishing of tribal languages are determined by geographical location and cultural contact.

Hodson had suggested that during social contact between different language groups, the social status of the group is important in determining which group learns the language of the other group. Following this some scholars have mentioned prestige, pride and solidarity of a particular language group in remaining monolingual. Be that as it may, economic transactions play a vital role in the multilingual process where in many cases outsiders have learnt the local tribal languages for economic viability.

However, in general tribal languages are attributed a lower status in comparison to other dominant language. Verrier Elwin in his study among the Bondo Highlanders observed that the Bonda use Mundari for daily conversation but use Oriya for two distinct purposes: the market transactions, when it involves weight and measures; and some magical and religious recitations are done in Oriya. The Bonda believe that Oriya is superior language and superior entities should be addressed in superior language. This linguistic process cannot be detached from social life where the notion of class and status influences the contour of tribal languages.

The contemporary situation of tribal languages

The study of tribal languages among the students of anthropology and linguistics has generated renewed interest on tribal communities. One of the concerns has been on the decline of tribal languages, which the Linguistic Survey of India has listed as endangered languages. The People’s Linguistic Survey of India has estimated that about 220 languages have disappeared in the last half century. It is important to note that endangered languages listed by the UNESCO even on cursory glance reveals the diminishing languages of indigenous populations. In India, many tribal languages have vanished from the face of the earth especially among the Andaman tribes, and more are expected to become extinct soon. This phenomenon is observed even in the Indian mainland among the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs), like the Asur, Birhor, Chenchu, Maram, Toto and also among Northeastern tribes like Chiru, Khoibu, Koireng and Maram. While the speakers of certain tribal languages have increased over the years, these tribes are also subjected to tremendous social change that retaining the original language has been a formidable task. Thus in India, both relative isolation and burgeoning cultural contact have led to steep decline in survival and continuity of tribal languages.

    References and suggested readings

• Forbes, C.J.F.S (1878) ‘On Tibeto-Burman Languages.’ In The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 10: 210-27.
• Grierson, G.A. (1967) Linguistic Survey of India, 11 vols. Reprinted. Delhi: MotilalBanarisdas.
• Hodson, T.C. (1936) ‘Bilingualism in India.’ Transactions of the Philological Society of London, pp.85-91.
• Konow, Sten (1908) ‘Notes on the Munda Family of Speech in India.’ In Anthropos3: 68-82.
• Shapiro, Michael C. and Schiffman, Harold F. (1981) Language and Society in South Asia. New Delhi:MotilalBanarisdas.