30 Tribal Economy

Vineet Verma

   Table of Content

Introduction

Tribal Population and their Distribution in India

Classification of Indian Tribal: on Economy, Occupation, Religion

Tribal Economy

Economic Base Tightly Dependent on their, Specific Environment

Main Features of Tribal Economy

Economic Classification of the Tribes

• Forest hunting type
• Shifting Hill-cultivators type-
• Plain agriculture type / Permanent Settled Cultivators-
• Simple artisan type
• Pastoral type-
• Folk-artist type-
• Manual Labour type-
• White-collar job and traders type

Tribal’s Poverty

Causes of Tribal’s Poverty

Strategies for Development in Tribal’s Areas

Tribal Economic Policies

Distinct Psychological Bent for Enjoying Life/ Course of Tribal life and personality structure

Post Independence Transformation of Tribal’s Society

Summary

Learning Objective

• To able to define an exclusive account of Tribal economy in India.
• An attempt to classify the course of Tribal economy.
• To be able to define the immense significance of the tribal administration in tribal economic development.
• To able to define the process of examining source integrated approach to the study of Tribal communities and traditional practices.
• To able to define the concept and full length account of socio-cultural aspect of Tribal India.

    Introduction

India is one of the few nations of tribal concentration and is also said to have the largest tribal population. The Tribal culture blooms in the isolated highlands and forests of India. The tribal’s are an integral part of the Indian population. Their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious belief and centuries long association with the Indian society. The study of tribal’s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in India. These forest and hill dwelling savages were called tribes to differentiate them from other civilised people. Tribal’s in India reflect the wider kaleidoscopic nature of Indian society, which in one hand is rooted in ancient traditions whereas on the other hand forces of modernization are working in tandem. The Tribal’s are organically interlinked society which has evolved through times. It is a reality that mirrors the very heart of India. Tribal are the centres of self-sufficiency, embodiment of collectivism. Though Tribal’s society is still rooted in age old customs, feudalism the process of modern participative the principle of equality. The effectiveness of participative institution provides the basis of redistribution and egalitarianism which is the feature of a Tribal’s society. The tribal culture of India is moulding itself, slowly but steadily, to find its niche in the national mainstream of culture.

Tribal Population and their Distribution in India

India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. The tribal have characteristics of their own. They differ from the common Indian population both in character and composition. On an all – India basis Indian non tribal population vary widely from place to place according to natural surroundings, economy, tradition and local history. On the other hand the tribal population of India have, more or less, similar natural environments of hill and forest, poor economy, and specific tradition which are ideal for the tribal to come up. The most obvious way to grasp a tribal village in India is to consider its geographical settings, settlement pattern and size on the one hand and the social settings including ethnic composition, on the other. In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India’s population, constituting 8 percent of her’ total population (Census, 2001), is “varied in terms of socio-economic and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other.

The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population. The major tribes in India are the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santals, the Oraons and the Minas. They live in different regions in the forest as well as in urban areas, and mostly speak their own languages. The states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and the Northeastern Region have a larger concentration of tribal population. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also inhabited by several tribes such as the Great Andamanese, Sentenelese, Onges, Jarwas, Sompens, and so on.

Socio-Cultural Aspect of Tribal’s

Agriculture being the main stays occupation of Tribal’s; they have close relationship with nature. The social ethos of Tribal’s life depends on close ties of kinship and friendship. They lay stress on customs, traditions, consensus and informality. Caste and class structure do take special place in social fabric. The bonding of familial ties plays a vital role in various aspect of Tribal’s life. It’s the pyramid of psychological support structure. The ties between family members are strong and last longer than their non tribal counterparts. The economies of families are mainly agriculture and the whole family forms a single economic entity, cooperate with one another and hold property in common. This interdependence among members helps develop a collective consciousness among the Tribal’s folk.

Tribal Economy

The sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal’s are concerned. Starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers; who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists and the group of industrial labourers. They earn their living by foraging as well as animal husbandry, by agriculture as well as govt. Services from peon to high level administrative officers and ministers.

Economic Base Tightly Dependent on their, Specific Environment

In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. The evolution of the economy from non – feudal to feudal and then to commercial conditions can take place during any stage of Tribal evolution. Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; largely or entirely independent of the national economic system; the sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal’s are concerned; starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists.

Main Features of Tribal Economy

They earn their living by foraging as well as animal husbandry, by agriculture as well as govt. Services from peon to high level administrative officers and ministers. But even when they pursue economic activities they are also a part of non tribal-economic life – agriculture, for instance – their structural arrangements are remarkably different. They possess very simple Technology basically producing only enough to maintain them at subsistence level, or even lower.

Usually they show what Majumdar called ‘Marginal Economy’ – a group of people practising different type of occupations at one time for livelihood e.g. collecting roots, fruits, and honey along with hunting. Usually a tribe has neither internal social differentiation nor any specialization of functions. And whatever a tribe takes up one specialized function such as simple artisans, it behaves as a caste.

In general economic life of the tribal’s is marked by the following features:

• Small economy- The production and transactions of goods and services take place within small communities in a limited geographical area.
• Reciprocal exchange- The exchange of goods and services is carried out on reciprocal basis, through barter and gift. The motive of profit is generally absent.
• No surplus- The manufacture of consumer goods necessary for bare sustenance is usual. An economic surplus is rare.
• Division of labour- Age and sex from the basic criterion for division of labour instead of professional training and specialization.
• Tribal markets- The exchange of good or limited sale of surplus goods take place in periodical tribal markets which also serve as socio-cultural networks in maintaining inter village ties.
• Simple technology- The tools are either made by the user himself or by local artisans living in the neighbourhood.
• Slower innovation- The rate of internal or induced innovation is very low, making the economic structure stable but unprogressive.
• Importance of family and kingship- The families in tribal societies is a unit of both production and consumption. The kinship acts as co-operative unit. In numerically smaller groups, whole community acts as a cooperative unit.

    Communitarian basis of land holding

Each tribal group is often identified with a particular territory; therefore, some scholars also suggest that “a tribe is a territorial group”.   Bearing a few exceptions of some nomadic tribes, the entire tribal group is found to have emotional attachment with their land and habitat. Because of their sentimental attachment  with  their  land  to  the  tribal’s  have  always  resisted  any  outside  interference.  Tribal resistance against interference in their habitat and land system is reflected in various tribal revolts in the past, as well as failures of several tribal resettlement schemes in different parts of the country. Tribes are very much dependent on forest for their day-to-day needs, including food, shelter, tools, medicine, and in some cases even clothes. As long as the tribes were in control of forest and use to have an open use of its produce, they had no difficulty in meeting these needs. In turn they preserved the forest as it was their life support system.

Economic Classification of the Tribes

A survey of tribes in India shows a wide range of economic activities which arrayed in order of increasing complexity, also portrays different stages in the evolution through which all mankind has passed. Prof. L.P. Vidyarthi has divided the tribes of India in to eight cultural types on the basis of economy. These ares-

• Forest hunting type- Mainly depending on hunting wild animals, collecting wild fruits, roots and fishing, these semi-nomadic tribes are found all over India accept western parts. Some of the tribes belong to this culture type are Raji of U.P, Birhor and Hill Kharia of Bihar, Juang of Orissa, Hill Maria Gonds of M.P, Chenchu and Yanadi of Andhra Pradesh and Kurumba of Kerala. They usually live far away from rural-urban way of life and possess a simple type of social organization.
• Shifting Hill-cultivators type- They practice shifting or slash-and-burn, cultivation on hill-slopes or terraces. This practice is known as Jhum in North east, Kurwa in Bihar, Podu or Dahi in Orissa, Kondapaddy in Andhra Pradesh. A hilly forested tract is selected for this purpose may have to abandon after three successive cultivating seasons as this soil likely to lose fertility. The plants, shrubs, and undergrowths are cut down and left for during for a month or so. Then they set fire to them. The ashes serve as auto-manure to the soil. A section of the Gond, Juang, Khasi, Garo, Naga, Kharia, Riang, Savara practice such type of primitive cultivation.
• Plain agriculture type / Permanent Settled Cultivators– Agriculture in its simpler form; ploughing with the help of two animals buffalos or oxes- is practised by majority of tribal’s in India. Cooperation during sowing and harvesting is a characteristic feature. Domestication of animal, particularly cow, buffalos, pigs, and fowl generally accompanies. The major tribes involved in Plain agriculture are; Khasi, Jantia, Tharu, Munda, Oraon, and Santhal.
• Simple artisan type- Certain tribes specialize in specific crafts and cottage industries like basketry, tool making, carpentary, iron smithy, spinning and weaving etc.
• Pastoral type- Although almost all agriculturists tribes domesticate animals, there are many tribes who are totally committed to cattle-hearding and live on milk and other dairy produce by selling them to neighbouring people. The classic example, are Todas of Nilgiri Hills of Tamilnadu.
• Folk-artist type- Some tribal’s specialize in aerobatics, singing, dancing, snake charming, conjuring and barding. They are nomads wandering from village to village and city to city all over India and earn their livelihood by arranging show in open air, usually in periodical markets, in the rural areas. Popularly known as Nat, Sapera, Madari, Bahrupiya. Etc.; they belong to different tribes.
• Manual Labour type-agricultural labour. The labour work in the field in kind. The labour type can be divided in to two- agricultural labour and non former type is to be found in every plain agriculturists village, where these of others, more or less regular basis and receive their remuneration mostly
• White-collar job and traders type- Group of Tribal who are working as school and college teachers, as clerks, and officers in govt. Offices as nurses and doctors in hospital; they are engaged in contact work an self employed as traders and merchant. No specific tribe can be included in this type.

    Tribal’s Poverty

Tribals are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of Tribal’s folk. The unequal distribution of rural assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall human development. The poor are deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health. Such situation has negative repercussion in the overall economy of the nation; also a major demography cannot be harness to its optimum potential.

Causes of Tribal’s Poverty

• The anti -poverty and development programmes has not percolated to the real beneficiary.
• The problem of disguised labour is prevalent in agriculture.
• Lack of other employment avenues due lack of requisite skills and technical education.
• Irrigational facilities are not available in major areas. Dependence on rainfall and groundwater extraction has cause a detrimental effect on agricultural practices
• Low agricultural poverty due to dependence on traditional methods of farming techniques.
• Poor quality of livestock.
• Poor quality of education and lack of skill development.
• Absence of dynamic community leadership.
• Presence of liquor and unwanted expansive social spending on rituals, customs etc.

    Strategies for Development in Tribal’s Areas

• The formal credit institution should be properly strengthened.
• Poverty alleviation programmes should be properly targeted so the benefits reach the needy ones.
• Focus should be given on integrated approach of human development by focussing on health, nutrition, sanitation and skill development.
• Creating social awareness to arrest increasing debt growth among the poor.
• Financial literacy must be propagated and banking facilities must be introduced with right earnest.
• Diversifying farming activities to animal husbandry, poultry, fishing and dairy farming.
• Steps should be taken to empower women by skill training, education, handicraft, financial training so that they can be part of the developmental process.

    Tribal Economic Policies

Union and state governments have made efforts to raise the level of tribal living at par with the other citizens; aimed at inhabitants, have taken special care to protect and preserve the tribal culture. In tribal area, where the tribal economy revolves around forests and forest based produce, the forestry based programmes have to be devised as to be in consonance with the socioeconomic fabric tribal culture and ethos. Economic development of tribal population, without cultural oppression or giving offence to their heritage or ethos will remain a challenging task for years to come.

Tribal are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of Tribal’s folk. The unequal distribution of assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall Tribal development. They are deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health.

• The anti -poverty and development programmes has not percolated to the real beneficiary.
• The problem of disguised labour is prevalent in agriculture.
• Lack of other employment avenues due lack of requisite skills and technical education.
• Irrigational facilities are not available in major areas. Dependence on rainfall and groundwater extraction has cause a detrimental effect on agricultural practices
• Low agricultural poverty due to dependence on traditional methods of farming techniques.
• Poor quality of livestock.
• Poor quality of education and lack of skill development.
• Absence of dynamic community leadership.
• Presence of liquor and unwanted expansive social spending on rituals, customs etc.

    Under the promotive and economic welfare policy of tribal development the central and state government started many programmes such as

• Modified Area Development Approach (MADA),
• Tribal Development Blocks (TDB),
• Integral Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
• Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programmes (RLEGP),
• Large Scale Agricultures Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS),
• Community Development Programmes (CDP),
• Small Farmer’s Development Agencies (SFDA),
• Marginal Farmers and Agricultures Labourers Development Agencies (MFAL),
• Drought Prone Area Programmes (DPAP), and
• Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM)

   The number of tribal community is very large e.g. Santhals, Kora people, Kol, etc. most of whom fall under scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and other backward classes. Most of the projects and efforts for uplifting their health, education and economic condition have failed both for their own unwillingness for change and absolute non cooperation as well as lethargy, dishonesty and corruption of the intermediaries. Although most of the tribal people of India are agriculturists yet their economy basically remains at the subsistence level. As a result the tribal’s at own, exert little effort to afford proper education. Whatever education the tribal’s have received so far has been because of the efforts of the missionaries and the central and the respective state government. Among several tribes socio – cultural factors have been mainly responsible for low literacy rate, particularly among the girls. There are other socio-cultural factors as well, such as early marriage which prevents particularly a tribal girl child to receive proper education and stake her claim in the job.

    Distinct Psychological Bent for Enjoying Life/ Course of Tribal life and personality structure

The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kings man in particular and community members in general. They grow in the intimacy of the social atmosphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. They feel pleasure in roaming about hills, forests and fields. Nature makes him intimate with the environment. He often meets friends and visits his own relations on different festive occasions and in periodical new relations and association with people.

Post Independence Transformation of Tribal’s Society

The post -independence period has shown a dynamic shift in Tribal’s society. The flow of capital led to diversification of business and employment opportunities. The transformation of Tribal’s society began during colonial period but it gain momentum during post- independence period due to intervention of government policies. These policies not only transform the Tribal’s economy but also Tribal’s social system. The transformation of Tribal’s society was regionally imbalanced and varied across India. The impact of globalisation had its impact on social customs and traditions; the westernization of culture has led to erosion of traditional values and customs. The impact of global media has brought about a tectonic shift in the culture and thought process of Indian Tribal’s life. The globalisation process has brought about aspiration changes in the mind of Tribal’s people.

Summary

The advent of industrial revolution and consequent urban exploitation particularly in the tribal belt of middle India, make the situation more complicated. Their situation has been changing. With the facilities available to them, their situation is improving to some extent. It remains a great job for the State and Central Government to bring tribes into confidence, educate them, clad them, take health care and arrange for their living by developing skill. The tribal culture of India has undergone changes owing to several factors, such as impact of education introduce by missionaries or Government, development of various communication etc; nevertheless, the greatest impact has been that of industrialization and urbanization. The obvious reason for this has been that the tribal area throughout the country are very rich as for as the mineral and the industrial resources are concerned.

In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.

Know More / Web Resources

SUGGESTED READING

Books that can be consulted for a more in-depth consideration of nonhuman skeletal biology

• Saraswati, B.N., 1997, ‘Tribes as Caste’ in From Tribe to Caste edited by Dev Nathan, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
• Beteille, Andre, 1974, Six Essays in Comparative Sociology, Delhi, Oxford University Press
• Dube, S.C., 1990, Indian Society, New Delhi, National Book Trust
• Hasnain, Nadeem, 2004, Indian Society and Culture: Continuity and Change, New Delhi, Jawahar Publishers and Distributors

    REFERENCES

• Bhalla Surjit (2011), “Inclusion and Growth in India: Some Facts, Some Conclusions”,  Asia Research Centre Working Paper No.39
• Bliss Christopher and Nicholas Stern (1982), “Palanpur: The Economy of an Indian Village”, Oxford University Press, Delhi
• Cohn, B.S. (1987), An Anthropologist among Historian and other Essays, Delhi.
• Dube, S.C. (1955), Indian Village, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
• Malyadri,  P.  (2012)  “Education  for  tribal  children:  An  engine  for  human  development” International Journal of Research Studies in Education, Volume 1 Number 1, pp. 99-106.
• Pal, T. (2011). “Changing Tribal Culture: A Photo-Geographical Explanation” Current Research Journal of Social Science , Volume: 3, Issue: 6, pp. 483-489.
• Pasayat, C. (2003). Glimpses of Tribal and Folk Culture. New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd
• Singh, K.S. (1982). “Transform of Tribal Society.” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.17. No34: pp1376-1384.
• Vidyarthi, L. P. (1979). Rise of Anthropology in India: a Social Science Orientation, Volume 1. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
• Vidyatrhi, L. P & Rai, (1977). The Tribal Culture of India. Edition 2. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.

Caste: Caste is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, non-commensality and hereditary occupations. According to Human Rights Watch and UNICEF, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide.

DID YOU KNOW?

Although almost all agriculturists tribes domesticate animals, there are many tribes who are totally committed to cattle-hearding and live on milk and other dairy produce by selling them to neighbouring people. The classic example, are Todas of Nilgiri Hills of Tamilnadu.