15 Gender and tribe

Dr. Vijeta

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Gender and Culture

3. Tribes and Women

4. Tribes and Gender Summary

Learning objectives

Through this module, one will able

To know about the concept of gender
To know about the concept of tribe
To know about the status of women in tribes
To know the relationship between all these concepts

1. Introduction

Arya and Kapoor said that Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed sex appropriate behaviour, demeanor, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and is located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of “gender” that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, and access to employment, play, time use, and power in the public and private sphere. From the Gender differentials numerous problems emerge. To ensure gender justice through gender equality the National Policy for Empowerment of Women set its major objective to eliminate gender discrimination on priority basis. In line with this, the Tenth five year plan India calls for a survey/search to identify areas with gender inequalities.

Gender is a social institution as encompassing as the four main institutions of traditional anthropology-family, economy, religion and symbolic language. Women and men have different gender-based roles and responsibilities in their own lives, families, households, and communities. Oakley mentioned that the word sex is used for biological differentiation between male and female. Gender is the division of people into two categories, “men” and “women”. Gender is a matter of culture and refers to the social classification into “Masculine” and “Feminine” characters. We use the term „gender‟ rather than “sex” since the latter only describes biological characteristics, whereas the former-encompasses socially constructed categories of gender. The term sex and gender are sometimes used interchangeably but there is a strict distinction between them.

In Gender studies the term „gender‟ is used to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. It does not refer to biological difference, but rather cultural difference.

In the view of Bird and Melville gender is “psychological, sociological and cultural aspects of being male and female.” Marcela who also defines gender as a social category that refers to and facilitates the analysis of the different roles, responsibilities, rights and opportunities and limitations of men and women within the family, the community, the society, the culture etc. Gender is a social construct while sex is a biological condition. Gender refers to the beliefs, personality traits, attitudes, sentiments and values, conducts and activities that distinguish men from women through a process of social formation that demonstrates specific characteristics. When we speak about Gender we are referring to the experiences of both men and women. Gender refers to the different social and cultural roles, expectations, and constraints placed upon men and women by virtue of their sex. It also refers to the differences and relations between men and women, that are learned, vary widely within and between cultures and which are changeable over time. In fact it is the gender that determines the position of male and female in society.

Gender refers to the different social roles that women and men play, and the power relations between them. Gender relations influence how communities, households, and institutions are organized, how decisions are made, and how resources are used. Gender studies are sometimes related to studies of class, race, ethnicity, and location.

Gender is omnipresent in the formation and in the studies of humanities and social sciences. The recognition of research problems, definition of scientific objects, and theoretical models of explanation, and furthermore, the distribution of innovative or risky outcomes is embedded in social-science and humanities where gender plays a central role. Gender interacts with life sciences mediated by social structures, symbolical representations and individual experiences. The agenda of gender research is correspondingly broad and ranges from the utilization of environmental resources (energy and water), the design of spaces and mobility organization to the management of knowledge, information and communication. It includes the politics of bodies, health and sustenance. In order to come to terms with these dynamical complexities the interdisciplinary of women‟s and gender studies needs to be developed further and broadened in order to engage with the fields of science, social sciences and different cultures. It also arose with the feminist critique that questioned women‟s „analytical visibility‟ as well as „representation‟ of women in traditional anthropological studies and expose male bias in the anthropological interpretation. Conventional anthropological studies have been strongly consumed for trivializing women‟s activities, relying on male informants to know their women.

The study of variation in gender and gender roles across different cultures have been shaped by the symbolic and sociological approaches. The symbolic approach use cultural variation and ideology to analyze gender symbolism and sex stereotypes. The sociological approach influenced by Marxism uses economic relation of production to study gender and to explain issues like status and subordination of women, which it does not see as a universal fact. In the past, these approaches have been used independently. But today, a combination of both is being used since it is being realized that these approaches are mutually inclusive and when one is used independently on the other it is found to be inadequate. In 1978, Indian Anthropological Society brought out a region wise survey of tribal women. It points out that studies of women have either been ignored or, when discussed, such discussions have been brief and sketchy. Except in some works by Elwin, Van Furer Haimendorf and a few others, there has been no explicit discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Even in these, the assessment on the status of women has been far from uniform. While some say that tribal societies generally assigned high status to women, others opine that women’s position in tribal society is the same as in other societies.

2. Gender and Culture

Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, behaviour, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of behaviour as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. Gilmore observed that the culture must socialize its women to be obedient and except a position in the hierarchy that is subservient to its males. Carroll et al worked on gender and culture and finds out those gender roles may be seen as the constellation of behaviour a culture aims appropriate for males and females and may include the attitude and emotion that are seen as fundamental to bring a man or a women. Cyrus observed that feminine behaviour is characterized by passivity, domesticity, dependency, emotion expressiveness, and a preoccupation with one‟s physical appearance, the presence of nurturing and maternal instincts.

3. Tribes and Women

The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, Mann, Zehol, and Kapoor et al,. The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there has been more analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having higher social status than their counterparts in caste society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food and nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Mead in her classic study „Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies‟ challenged that gender differences not only vary across cultures but within a culture they differ over time. Millet mentioned that principle of patriarchy appear to be two-fold. Male shall dominate females, elder male shall dominate younger. Indra et al found that in India, both in the upper and the lower caste, the girl children are discriminated against boys, ranked unequally with lower status and prevented from realizing their full potential. Anand recorded that gender justice means rights of women against exploitation and victimization. For women, who are victims of criminal assault, the material wealth and status symbols have no meaning. Bhatt (2001) observed that women in our country suffer from lack of awareness of their rights, illiteracy, oppressive practices and customs. In India, it has been computed that about six million abortions take place every year. Prasad recorded that women‟s lack of control over their own sexuality and fertility remains one of the most threatening aspects of their lives. Gender role ideologies subjugate women to patriarchal and traditional forces, girls and women, who defy gender expectations particularly with respect to family roles, are faced with harsh social penalties. Soundari and Sudhir (2003) claimed that women bear primary responsibilities for the well-being of their families yet they are discriminated systematically and denied access to resources such as education, health care services, job training etc.

4. Tribes and Gender

Singh worked on women issues and reported that, in rural India poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. The sufferings of women were many times greater than the sufferings of men. Agnihotri, et al conducted a study on women‟s issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with higher proportion of the scheduled tribes exhibit higher female participation rate. Butter reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women‟s economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources.

Concern for a focus on women in tribal studies has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women‟s issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With this there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women‟s status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching.

Mishra and Kapoor observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Arya & Kapoor worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. In caste society women suffer from rape, dowry, crime against women, political violence whereas in tribal societies women work harder than men and they have no share in land and they are beaten badly also. Xaxa conducted study on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.

Summary

Study of Tribes in India concerns, for a focus on women in tribal studies has been very recent. It emerged out of general interest and concern with women‟s issues the world over. The value system governing larger Indian society has been in the process of change. With this there has been a shift in the image of tribal women who are thus invariably portrayed as enjoying a better social status than their counterparts in the larger Indian society. Tribal society in the post-Independence era has been witness to unprecedented change, which has been most marked in respect of culture, modes of making a living and social differentiation. Their bearing on women‟s status in society and gender relations has been far-reaching. The article attempts to highlight the issues involved on the basis of existing ethnographic accounts. Gender was first conceptualized as distinct from sex in order to highlight the social and cultural processes that constructed different social roles for females and males and that prescribed sex appropriate behaviour, demeanors, personality characteristics, and dress. Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that emerged in the last two decades of the twentieth century and is located mainly in English-speaking academia and its associated publishing industry. Its emergence is a direct result of the particular definition of “gender” that has developed in English-speaking universities under the influence of feminist thought. India as a whole is characterized by sharp gender disparities, although women status varies considerably by region. There are large and persistent gender gaps in many indicators of well-being across the world. They include gender gaps in control over economic resources, education, earnings, mortality, access to employment, play, time use, and power in the public and private sphere (UNDP 1995, World Bank, 2001). Gender is a cultural category that contains the roles, behaviours, rights, responsibilities, privileges and personality traits assigned by that specific culture to men and women. Gender role may be seen as the constellation of behaviour as culture deems appropriate for males and females and may include the attitudes and emotions that are seen as fundamental to being a man or a woman. The recent studies provide a more careful rendering of the situation of tribal women than the ones presented in the earlier accounts. One can see this in the works of Chauhan, (1990); Mann, (1996); Zehol, (1998); and Kapoor et al, (2007). The more recent writings also mark a departure from the earlier ones on the status of tribal women. These are now increasingly moving in the direction of what in social science literature is described as gender studies. In recent years, there has been more analytical discussion on the status of women in tribal society. Earlier, they were portrayed as having a better status than women in caste societies, with physical mobility, choice in marriage, divorce and remarriage, access to property and resources. Consequently, tribal women were invariably depicted as having higher social status than their counterparts in caste society. However, the economic burden and workload of tribal women as well as their access to education, food and nutrition, modern occupation and political participation, especially in the modern context, has not been given the kind attention it deserves. Singh (1973) worked on women issues and reported that, in rural India poorer people were made victims of severe injustices and discriminations. Agnihotri, et al (1995) conducted a study on women‟s issue and claimed that women movement as we find today, is the result of several political, educational and cultural forces. Mehta (1999) worked on tribal women among Rajasthan reported that the district with higher proportion of the scheduled tribes exhibit higher female participation rate. Butter (1999) reported that greater dependence of rural poor women on natural resources due to lack of alternatives affects women disproportionately and gender differences in time and mobility due to different roles and responsibilities greatly constrain women‟s economic opportunities often lead to high degree of dependence on locally available resources. Mishra and Kapoor (2001) observed that among the Meena tribe of Rajasthan parents do not send the girl child to school because they think that there is no point in educating a girl because she will be married and send away. The girls perform domestic work. The girl child is given full diet. She is not given milk and fruits. Banu (2002) worked on Gender issues in caste and tribal society and concluded that problems of gender issues vary from society to society. Indian society can be divided into caste and tribal society. Gender issues are at different levels in both these societies. Xaxa (2004) conducted study on women and Gender of Tribes in India and reported that the tribal women have a better social status that their non-tribal counterparts in the larger Indian societies.

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REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

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