4 Unity And Diversity In Indian Society And Culture

Dr. Meenal Dhall

Contents of this unit

1. A BRIEF HISTORY

1.1. The Introduction

1.2. The Evolution of the Indian Culture and Diversity

1.2.1. Tracing through the Archaeological Findings

1.2.1.1.The Pre-History of India

1.2.1.2.The Proto-History of India

1.2.1.3.The Vedic Period

1.2.1.4.The Impact of other cultures on the Indian Population

1.2.1.5.In a Nutshell

2. THE CURRENT POPULATION DYNAMICS

2.1. The Composition and Distribution of the Indian Population 2.1.1. The Ethnic Groups

2.1.2.  The Linguistic Distribution

2.1.3.  The Religious Diversity of India

3. THE UNITS OF SOLIDARITY

3.1. The Indian Family, Kinship and Society

3.2. The Status of a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic Country

3.3. The Sharing of Elements of Tolerance, Acceptance and Adaptability

3.4. The Socialist Reformers

4.  THE SUMMARY

Learning Objectives:

• To study the importance of the unity and diversity of the Indian society and culture.
• To know about the origin of diversity in India through history.
• To study the distribution of the diverse elements of the Indian population.
• To understand the reasons leading to unity in India.

1. A BRIEF HISTORY

1.1 The Introduction:

The Indian sub-continent can be rightly regarded as a galaxy of diverse elements whose preponderance can be felt in every strata of Indian culture and society. Through years of isolation and intermixing, subjugation and uprising, tolerance and penetrance, India has witnessed a history of experimenting cultures giving rise to new forms, whose diversity can be felt in the plurality of ethnic groups, religions, languages, occupational units and social and political groups.

This diversity can be readily attributed to the past comprising of years of migration, intermixing, invasions and comparative isolation through the natural geographical boundaries. The period of change and amalgamation can be traced to over a rich five thousand years since the first civilization emerged in India. Over this period the country has observed evolution from the primitive hunting- gathering life to the settled agriculture based occupation, the development of local art paved ways for expansion of the broad arenas where human mind can delve and explore its limitations and innovate technologies to surmount them.

In the current scenario, standing with a total population of 1.21 billion, India presents a kaleidoscope of varying cultures and traditions. Moving from the pre-historic period to the Vedic period, we find the emergence of faith, although it was in the incipient form, it diffused from one region to the other. Then, with the advent of the Aryans, the penetrance of Aryanized values differed in different local communities, giving rise to different interpretations and analogous inheritance over generations. Though, the hierarchical system was common everywhere, its rigidity varied from region to region. So, Hinduism emerged but not much as a religion but as a conglomeration of different practices but same ideology. With the immigration of other stronger religious communities in India, especially Islam and Christianity which persisted over a long period in India, an amalgamation of customs, the fusion of teachings, development of tolerance and togetherness enriched the soil of India. The religions like Judaism and Zoroastrianism, which came from the other lands of the world confined themselves to the small pockets of the Indian sub-continent, whereas, the other religions like Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism which developed in India restricted themselves to fixed zones and didn’t diffuse much.

Similar influence of migration was seen when people belonging to different ethnic groups came and settled in India. They mixed with the local population, exchanged and adopted their socio- biological traits and articulated new forms of customs and social designs resulting in a diversity of physical features, forms and lifestyles. The affiliation of people to such a diverse linguistic- family proves the strength of the cultural roots of India. Similar distribution is still prevalent in the tribal diversity of India, some of which are still away from the present world of urbanization and modernization, following their ancient traditional values.

Our country passed through the stages of cultural evolution, from where it moved from the nature, spirit and ancestor worship to following one or more religious teachings. It has faced the complexity of the caste system to the agony of proselytization. Despite the differences observed in our societal structural formulation, we find acceptance, tolerance and adjustability at its very core. Our constitution grants us the status of a sovereign, secular, socialist and democratic republic, which we all enjoy with pride and joy. We are diverse yet united and it is the key to our strength.

1.2 The Evolution of the Indian Culture and Diversity:

The history of the Indian culture has the oldest continuity in tradition. From the pre-historic period to the evolution of agriculture and the emergence of the present 20th century technology, India has endured both the ravages and aids of climate, time and people.

1.2.1. Tracing through the Archaeological Findings

Though it is difficult to trace the true picture of the pre-history of India due to the lack of written records and missing oral traditions, we rely on the evidences obtained through archaeological findings which are again incomplete and disputed in many ways.

1.2.1.1. The Pre-History of India

According to the available proofs the pre-history of India can be traced back to the second Inter-Glacial period, between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C., when the use of stone tools is recorded. The presence and use of different stone tools mark the beginning of different Paleolithic cultures in India:

Unity And Society In Indian Society And Culture

The other archaeological evidences include: cave paintings, burial sites, skeletal remains, ornaments, pottery, bone tools, megalithic remains with the use of iron, bronze and even gold, along with the metaphysical thoughts of the ancient people through the remains found around their skeletons and dwelling sites.

1.2.1.2 The Proto- History of India:

When the rest of India was passing through the Stone Age, the emergence of the Indus Valley Civilization in the western frontier marked the beginning of the Proto- Historic culture of India. This was an advanced civilization which flourished between 2500- 1500 B.C. The Indus Valley Civilization was extensively distributed from Alamgirpur in the East to SutkagenDor on Pakistan- Iran border in the South- West and from river Chenab in the North to Lothal in Gujarat in the South. The major cities included Mohenjodaro and Harappa, (now in Sindh, Pakistan), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Ropar (Punjab), Chanhudaro (Pakistan) and Lothal (Gujarat).

The Indus Valley Civilization is known for its town planning, the dockyard, agricultural practice, domestication of animals, tools and technology including cloth weaving, ornament making, use of metals, wheel, pottery etc., political organization and architecture, trade (especially with Mesopotamians), craftwork (use of terracotta, seals, figurines etc.), religion (worship of Mother Goddess, the Lingam and Lord Shiva) and their unique script which has still not been deciphered.

The most appealing feature of this civilization is seen in its conservatism over years followed by a sudden disappearance. Many scholars have worked upon the probable reasons of their disappearance but no theory has still been proved convincing.

1.2.1.3 The Vedic Period:

The advent of the Vedic era started with the arrival of Aryans in India. The migration happened in smaller groups of related tribes over centuries. These Aryans were the nomadic pastorals who also practiced agriculture for fulfilling their basic needs. They did not bring any civilization with them but owned a strong culture rooted in their beliefs, practices and crafts. They had a flair for poetry, philosophy and art. They composed hymns in praise of their gods and handed it down over generations through oral tradition without any written records. They tended horses and used fast moving chariots. They were “racists” and considered themselves to be superior over the other indigenous inhabitants of India whom they referred by derogatory names. They practiced endogamy and brought the concept of purity and pollution to India for the first time. This led to the emergence of Varna and later the Jati system in India and laid the foundation of the first structural and behavioral social system in India.

1.2.1.4  The Impact of the other cultures on the Indian Population:

Over the years, the pillars of cultural diversity in India have been:

i.  The long history of migration

ii. Ecological diversity

iii. Cultural ethos

In India, migration took place principally from three regions:

a. The North- West Corridor: The migration of The Indo- European speakers from Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkey, Greece, Mongolia etc. took place.

b. The North- East Corridor: Because of the hostile and rugged terrain, restricted migration from Myanmar, Tibet, and China etc. took place which led to their scattered settlement in the zones of isolation.

c. The Malabar Coast, Kerala: Islam and Christianity first entered India from the Malabar Coast.

These cultures brought the distinctiveness and richness of their traditions and practices to India, whose impact can be seen in the languages spoken in their settlement area. The geographical isolation and suitability helped them to inculcate their local practices. These supplemented the development of more diverse cultural forms.

1.2.1.5  In a Nutshell

Traversing over ages from the pre-historic India to the post- Vedic period, we can observe a chain of events from development and modification to extinction. For the pre- historic period, we have evidences in the form of skeletons and stone tools which tells a divine history of changing forms of technology over generations. The locations where they were found directs towards the availability of necessary resources for their survival and their initial inhabitation followed by consequent migration to other places when conditions became adverse. The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic period demonstrates the development of technology, skills and most importantly expression which is depicted in the art forms in caves and most probably language which finally might have led to the spread of technology to other zones, especially that of agriculture which involves intensive division of labor and associated co-ordination facilitated through the exchange of ideas.

The traces of the Indus Valley Civilization shows the presence of Proto- Australoid, Mediterranean, Alpine and Mongoloid traits which might belong the indigenous population or the people from other countries with whom trade relations were established. They brought the concept of Shiva worship in India. With the arrival of the Indo- Aryans, the hierarchical system differentiating between ours (pure) and others (pollution) started. They brought the rules of endogamy, taboos, rituals and physical contact with them. Complementing their nomadic lifestyle, their spread to the other regions created a wave of “Aryanization” which was assimilated but at different degrees in different cultures. The battle of ten kings shows a period of cultural conflict and warfare as Aryans moved from Panchnad (Punjab) to The Indo- Gangetic plains. Simultaneously, an internal change in the social structure of Aryans was taking place. They were gradually shifting from pastoral to agricultural economy which involved greater harmony and interaction with the locals. On the same front, the non- Aryans were adopting some elements of the Indo- Aryan rituals and imbibing their philosophy of social organization. This resulted in mixing of the cultures and traditions of both giving rise to diverse social practices. Some tribal groups who refused to take up their rituals moved to the inaccessible forests and hilly areas; and those who were non-Aryans but powerful ethnic groups, like Reddy of Andhra Pradesh, the Nayars of Kerala, the Maravas of Tamil Nadu and the Marathas of Maharashtra, obtained a Kshatriya status on the basis of their dominance and control.

In short, the three important stages leading to diversity in India were:

i.  The interaction of the Indo- Aryan speakers with the indigenous people

ii. The original population which did not get influenced by the Indo- Aryans

iii.  The waves of migration

These evidences though do not show a sudden transition to the modern world embracing all the elements of the current variegated dimensions of society and culture, but they help us in plotting the distribution of human population over the entire sub-continent in a significant period of time.

2.  THE CURRENT POPULATION DYNAMICS

2.1. The Composition and Distribution of the Indian Population

India is the second most populous country of the world after China with the estimated decadal growth of 17.64% according to the 2011 census. Its population density is 382 per sq. km. and the average sex ratio is 940 females per 1000 males.

This huge population is characterized by varying elements of diversity which are expressed in different forms in different regions. A few of them include:

2.1.1    The Ethnic Groups:

Almost all of the world’s major genetic elements are found in India. Bhasin and Walter (2011) said that India is a home for over 4,000 Mendelian populations. A major eleven types of racial elements have been identified in India, which include: Indo- Aryans, Dravidians, Proto- Australoids, Negrito, Mediterranean, Scythians, Mongoloids, Nordics, Alpines, Dinaric and Armenoids. These racial groups are classified on the basis of their distinct physical characteristics which makes them common to a particular stock and different to the other, thus tracing the origin and migration of human beings over centuries.

The most accepted classification of racial elements is that given by B.S. Guha in 1935, where he identified six different ethnic groups in India (The Negritos, the Proto- Australoids, the Mongoloids, the Mediterranean, the Western Brachycephalic and the Nordics) which are further divided into nine sub-types. He selected 29 standard somatometric measurements and worked on 34 ethnic groups in India. Out of the six racial groups defined by him, the anthropologists have a consensus that the Negritos, the Proto- Australoids and the Mongoloids were the autochthones of India and the Mediterraneans, the Western Brachycephalic and the Nordics came later.

The important characteristic features of the different ethnic groups by Guha are:

i. The Negritos: They have dark brown to black skin color, wooly hair, small- round to medium-long head, bulbous forehead, smooth supra-orbital ridges, dark eyes, straight, flat and broad nose and short stature. These are represented by the Kadars and Pulayans of Cochin and Travancore, the Irulars of Tamil Nadu and Onges and Andamanese of the Andaman Islands.

ii. The Proto– Australoids: they have dark brown skin color, dark and slightly wavy and curly hair, long head, less developed and slightly receding forehead, dark eyes and broad and depressed nose. They are found commonly among the forest dwelling tribes of the Eastern and Central India. Some examples include: Urali, Baiga, Chenchu, Kannikar, Bhil, Santhals, Oraon etc.

iii.  The Mongoloids: These are divided into two sub-types:

a. Palaeo Mongoloid: These are particularly long headed (dark- light brown skin color, dark and straight hair, long head, short and fat face, not fully developed supra- orbital ridges, prominent cheek bones and medium- statured) who are represented by some tribal groups of Assam and some Limbu groups of Nepal or broad headed (dark skin color, broader head, epicanthic fold and medium stature) who are found among the Lepchas of Kalimpong and among the Chakmas and Maghs of Chittagong (Bangladesh).

b.Tibeto Mongoloid: They have light brown skin color, broad and massive head, long- flat face, epicanthic fold and medium to long nose. They are represented by the Tibetans of Bhutan and

Sikkim.

iv. The Mediterranean: They are divided into two sub- types:

a. Palaeo-Mediterranean: They have dark skin color, dark wavy and curly hair, dolicocephalic and bulbous head, narrow face with pointed chin, dark eyes, small and broad nose and medium stature. This population is represented by some Brahmins of Madurai and Andhra Pradesh.

b. Mediterranean: They have light skin color, arched forehead, well developed chin, brownish dark eyes and medium to tall stature. This racial element is represented by some Brahmins of Cochin and Allahabad and the Marathas of Maharashtra.

Fisher has classified some Mediterraneans as Oriental types who are similar to the Mediterranean sub-type except in the nose which is long and convex in the Orientals. They are represented by the inhabitants of Punjab (Pathans) and Sindh, and also some Rajputs.

v. The Western Brachycephalics: They are divided into three sub-types:

a. Alpinoids: They have light skin color, brownish dark hair which are sometimes wavy, broad head, round occipit, dark- brown eyes and prominent nose and are medium statured. These are represented by the Bania and Kathis of Gujarat and Kayasthas of Bengal.

b. Dinaric: They have darker skin color than Alpinoids, dark hair, long head, dark eyes, long and often convex nose and tall stature. They are represented by the Kanarese Brahmins of Mysore and some inhabitants of Bengal, Orissa and Karnataka.

c. Armenoids: Most of their features are similar to those of the Dinaric, except they have a more prominent, narrow and curved nose and a more prominent occiput. These are represented by the Parsis of Mumbai.

vi. The Nordics: These are very fair, have brown to dark hair, long head, more prominent and protruding occiput, arched forehead, strong jaws, eyes with a bluish tinge and a tall and well-built body. These are represented by the inhabitants of Northern India (Punjab and Rajasthan)

2.1.2 The Linguistic Distribution

India being a country of pluralistic traditions and values owing to its geographical terrain and boundaries, the social contact, the migration pattern and their transfer over generations has influenced the regional language of India to a great extent. It gives a person his social identity and a means to build relationships on being at a distance from his cultural group.

Sir George Grierson (1903- 1923), worked on languages and identified 179 languages and 544 dialects in India. In 1961 census, a survey was conducted which concluded that around 187 languages are spoken by different sections of the country, out of which 94 languages are spoken by less than 10,000 people of India. There are 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution of India.

According to the linguistic distribution of the nation, four major language families have been identified which also demonstrate the tribal diversity of our country:

i.The Austro-Asiatic Family: It is said to have originated in the Indo- China and spread towards the East. The Austrics are the offshoots of the Mediterranean people who came to India from the West and were regarded as Nishads by the Aryans. Its sub-family includes:

a.Munda: Spoken by the inhabitants of the hill tribes of Bihar, Chota Nagpur and other parts of Central India. The languages spoken includes: Mundari, Birhor, Korku, Juang, Gadaba, Kherwari etc.

b. Mon-Khmer: Spoken by the the Khasi, Jaintia and some Nicobaris.

ii. The Sino-Tibetan Family: The speakers are generally of Mongoloid origin who seem to have come from the Eastern Frontier. They were regarded as Kiratas by the Aryans. Their sub-families are:

a.    Siamese:  It  includes  the  “Tai”  group  of  languages  under  which  only  one  language  i.e., Khamtifalls.

b.   Tibeto-Burman: Under the Tibeto-Himalayans Branch, the Bhatia group is represented by languages like Ladhakhi, Lahuli, Bhotia, Sherpa etc. and the Himalayan Group by the languages like Tamang, Rai, Dhimal, Chamba, Jangali, Lepcha, etc. The North Assam Branch Is Spoken By The Inhabitants Of The N-E Frontier And Includes Languages Like Aka, Adi, Miri, Mishmi, etc. The Assam Burmese Branch has the following groups:

• Boro: Languages include Bodo, Lalung, Dimasa, Garo, Tripuri, Mikir, etc.
• Naga: Languages include Angami, Ao, Kabui, Rengma, Tangkhul, Konyak, etc.
• Kachim: Languages include Kawri and Singpho.
• Kuki-Chin: Languages include Kuki, Ralte, Mizo, Aimol, Kom, Hmar, etc.
• Arakan-Burmese: includes Meitei Language.

iii.  The Dravidian Family: The sub-families include:

a. South: Languages Include Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Toda, Kota, Coorg, etc.

b. Central: Languages Include Kui, Kolami, Gondi, Koya, Kondh, Parji etc.

c. North: Languages Include Oraon And Malto.

iv. The Indo-European Family: The sub-families include:

a. Iranian: includes languages of the foreign origin like Persia, Pashto, Balochi etc.

b.   Dardic: includes the languages like Wai Ala (Kaffir), Khowar And Dardi, Shina, Kashmiri And Kohistani (Dard)

c. Indo-Aryan: The outer branch consists of languages like Punjabi and Sindhi (North-Western), Marathi And Konkani (South) And Oriya, Bihari, Bengali and Assamese (Eastern). The inner Branch consists of languages like Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, Rajasthani (Central) and the Pahari Group Consists of languages like Nepali (Eastern), Kumaoni and Garhwali (Central) And Jaunsari, Sirmauri, Handuri, Mandi, Baghatietc. (Western).

2.1.3     The Religious Diversity Of India:

The land of India is rich in varying religious affinities of its people. According to the 2001 census, out of the total population, Hindus hold a majority of 80.5% of the population, whereas Muslims account for 13.4%, christians constitute 2.3%, sikhs for 1.9%, buddhists for 0.8%, jains for 0.4% and the other religions for 0.6% of the total Indian population. So the Hindus and the Muslims of India form a major section of the population with a total of 828 million and 138 million respectively, out of the total population of approximately 1,029 million.

The major religions of India can be described as:

Hinduism

Hinduism, though has the maximum number of followers in India, it is not considered as a religion by most of the scholars of the world. It is more considered as an ideology, or a broad group of interconnected traditions arising in different indigenous forms within India itself. It has no founding figure unlike most of the other religions of the world and is not so rigid in standards of doctrine and practice. It is considered to be one of the oldest religions of the world, though its recorded documents can only be traced back to 1,200 b.c.; also it is one of the youngest religions of the world which in the 19th century identified more indigenous forms like its own and recognized them following the same school of thought.

The term “Hinduism” derives originally from the Indo- Aryan word, “sindhu” which means sea or contextually the Indus river. The Persians modified the term phonologically to “hind”, and used it to refer to the land of the Indus valley. Later Greek and Latin borrowed the term, and modified it to the word “India” to designate the geographical designation of the land beyond Indus. The Muslims used the term Hindu to refer specifically to the native people of south Asia who did not convert to Islam. Later during the colonial rule in India, the British used the term hinduism to refer to a set of religious practices and beliefs which did not fall under other religious segments.

The Hindus are now broadly divided into shaivite (who worship shiva), vaishnava (who worship Vishnu and his incarnations), shakta (who worship the mother goddess) and smarta (who worship all three- Shiva, Vishnu and the mother goddess). These are further sub- divided based on their ritual practices and doctrines. Sects and cults are an extension to the categorization of the Hindu religion.

The important religious texts of the Hindus constitute the Vedas, the epics, the puranic theologies of Vishnu and Shiva, the medieval texts of bhakti movements and the fresh formulations by the modern reformers.

Islam

Mohammed, the prophet of Islam, was a member of the Arab tribe when he started receiving revelations around 610 CE (Common Era) which continued until his death in 632 CE. These revelations were later compiled to lay the foundation of the sacred Islam text called, the Quran. For the first 150 years of its existence, it rapidly spread to all the major Asian countries and later to some parts of Spain, France and Sind. Islam first landed in India from the Malabar Coast of Kerala through the Arab traders. Later through repeated invasions in the early 11th century by Mahmud of Ghazna (in Afghanistan), in 1193 by Muhammad of Ghur and his general Qutb-ud-din-aibak and Babar in 1526. So, Islam ruled over the entire north India for a period of around 500 years of the late medieval Indian history. With the Islamic rule in India, Sufism, sharing features of Islam and Hinduism arrived which brought a spiritual soul to the Indian land. The bhakti movement resulting from the advocacy of both Hinduism and Islam teachings, preached tolerance, brotherhood and love. It was started by Swami Ramanuj and his disciples- Kabir, Raidas, Chaitanya, Tukaram etc.

The Indian Muslims are divided into two communities: the Sunni and the Shia. The Shia forms the minor group in India. The Sunnis follow different types of Muslim law. A majority of the Indian Sunnis follow the Hanifi School with some communities in the south- the mappillas and the lakshadweep islanders follow the shafi school and some in Gujarat follow the mallki school. The Shias follow their Imami law and are further categorized for following seven imams or twelve imams. They also have fourteen religious orders, some of which are the chisti order, the suhrawardi order, the shattari order, the quadiri order and the naqsbandi order. They were monotheists which affected the polytheistic practices of Hindus.

The Islamic culture brought its great knowledge of art and architecture, music, food, dressing, language, historiography and administration with it.

Christianity

Christianity entered India in 52 AD through the Malabar coast of Kerala, when St. Judas Thomas arrived and converted the locals and formed permanent Christian communities. These converts are known as the Syrian Christians who enjoy a higher status, wealth, opportunities and rights as compared to the other Christians. Later during the colonial period, the British exchanged their language, philosophy and the religious beliefs with the locals for around 200 years. During this period they activated their christian missionaries to establish churches and start proselytization of the tribals and the weaker sections which affected the socio-religious aspects of the Indian society. These converts came to be known as the Latin Christians who enjoy a lower status and wealth in comparison to the Syrian Christians. The Indian churches are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants.

Sikhism

Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev (1469- 1539), and his legacy was carried forward by his nine successors. Its teachings are inspired by the bhakti movement of Hinduism and Sufi tradition of Islam. He abolished any social distinction and believed in the equality of people. For promoting egalitarianism, he set up a custom of free community kitchens which served people free food irrespective of their caste and creed. The tenth Sikh guru, Guru Govind Singh, established the fundamental Sikh institutions and formed a fraternity called Khalsa (the pure).

Sikhism generally remained confined to the state of Punjab. Though a militant sect under the leadership of Ranjit Singh (1780- 1839) ascended to bloom the custom further, but, after his death, his state fell apart, confining Sikhism again to a religious than a secular power.

The Sikhs worship in a Gurudwara and follow a holy book called “the Guru Granth Sahib”.

Jainism:

Jainism was founded by a great sage of the jain religion, mahavira (563 b.c. – 483 b.c.). Contemporary to buddhism, it was one of the first indigenous religious movements started in India, now restricted only to a few regions of gujarat and mysore. The two major divisions of jainism are: digambara (unclothed) and shwetambara (white robed). The jainism teaches equality and is open to all classes whose membership is dependent on one’s personal acts and aptitude and not any ascribed status. However, jains do have endogamous jatis. A recent study (1953) estimates around 60 endogamous groups with less than a hundred individuals per group.

Other Religions:

Some of the other religions practiced by a small group of people in India include buddhism, zoroastrianism, and judaism etc.

3.    THE UNITS OF SOLIDARITY

3.1. The Indian Family, Kinship And Society

The Indian family is the representation of the unit of social change and control. It is majorly patrilineal in nature, where starting from the household decisions, disputes, property ownership, gender roles, social engagement to the decision of marriage are taken by the male members of the kin groups. In the context of a village, kinship influences the jati relations which in turn control the village relations of interdependence and co-existence. An example of this is the “jajmani system” where in exchange for the products and services of the service class (known as kamin or parjan), the cultivator or the superior class (known as jajman) performs transactions based on cash or barter system. The relationships between the two groups is based on reliability and trust which is extended to make the interdependence durable, exclusive and multiple. The breach of trust from one group leads to their boycott or abolition from their society. So, it is a system which starts from the unit of a family and continues over trust to the wider level.

Kinship provides a basis for social identity and a membership to a system of rules according to which a community functions. The fraternal solidarity within a village forms the basis of protection, corporation and control. Similarly family as a unit owns the responsibility to form a social prestige, which is based again upon the interdependence and interactions. This helps in keeping the social system well connected, with a support system generated, and creating an organic solidarity.

3.2. The Status Of A Sovereign, Socialist, Secular And Democratic Country

The constitution of India came into force on 26january, 1950. Knowing the depth of the cultural evils of caste discrimination, suppression of women rights, lack of equal opportunities and discrimination on the grounds of religion, the constitutional committee worked to secure their rights. Some of the important articles of our constitution includes:

i. Article 14: equality before law

ii. Article 15: prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth

iii. Article 16: equality of opportunity in matters of public employment

iv.  Article 17: abolition of untouchability

v. Article 19: protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech

vi. Article 21: protection of life and personal liberty

vii. Article 45: provision for free and compulsory education for children

viii.  Article 46: promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections

ix. Article 243d: reservation of seats (for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes)

x.  Article 330: reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the house of the people

xi. Article 332: reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the legislative assemblies of the states

3.3. The Sharing Of Elements Of Tolerance, Acceptance And Adaptability

India is a unique example of a country where despite the existence of diversity in every strata of human existence, we find a sense of togetherness. Though the situation is very critical to handle and sometimes leads to a great violence and debate, but still, over the years of growth and scarcity, war and peace, boundaries and bridges, we find a sentimental attachment between the people of india. This is a result of the elements of tolerance, acceptance, adaptability, objectivity, co-existence and secularism, which still binds us together.

3.4. The Social Reformers

The social reformers are the one who take the initiative in eliminating the social evils which exist in society and are passed on as a custom from one generation to the other. Different reformers raised their voice in different times in the past and worked towards the egalitarian development of society. These efforts created an awakening country wide and led to the emergence of a spirit of nationalism and unity. Some of the important social reformers include:

i. Raja Ram Mohan Roy: he established the “brahma samaj”, by combining the elements standing for social harmony and peace from upanishad, Islam, Christianity and liberalism. He believed in “one god for all humanity”, and was against polytheism and idol worship. He is known for his work for the upliftment of women and eradicating untouchability.

ii. Swami Dayanand Saraswati: he founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 and emphasized the need to return to the knowledge shared in “vedas”. He believed that the true vedas are free from any discrimination and criticized the authority of brahmins, ritualism and idol worship.

iii. Swami Vivekananda: he was the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa who wanted to bring forth all the positive traditions of Hinduism and not just what is written in the vedas. He founded the Ramakrishna mission and in his address at the world congress of religions at Chicago in 1983, he reiterated the significance of the vedantic philosophy.

iv. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: he worked for the upliftment of Muslims in india who were struggling with the problems like illiteracy, polygamy, purdah system and very low position of women in society. He believed that education is the only way to reinterpret Islam and help in social progress. So, he founded the Aligarh Muslim University.

4.  Summary

• India is diverse in every aspect of the elements defining a population. Most profoundly it can be observed in the ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity of India.
• Several years of migration, intermixing, invasions and comparative isolation has resulted in a varied profile of India.
• The origin of society can be observed in stages by peeping through the growth and distribution of the population starting from the pre-historic to the post-historic to the vedic and later to the modern period. The shift in technology and mode of living ensured better survival chances and social evolution which made people realize the importance of inter-dependence and division of labor. So, many different social elements came together which resulted in social dynamics operating differently in different regions.
• The advent of aryans brought the concept of social hierarchy in the form of varna, jati and caste system.
• The diversity of India can be understood by studying the following:

i. The ethnic groups of India

ii. The linguistic diversity of India

iii. The religious diversity of India

• B.S. Guha’s racial classification identifies six major ethnic elements in India: the negrito, proto-australoid, mongoloid, mediterranean, western brachycephalic and nordics.
• Four linguistic families have been identified in India: the austro-Asiatic, sino-tibetan, dravidian and indo-european. These are further divided into sub-family, branches and groups.
• Sir george grierson (1903-1923), worked on languages and identified 19 languages and 544 dialects in India.
• A number of religions are practiced by different groups of people in India, where 80.5% of the population constitutes Hindus and 13.4% accounts for the Muslims.
• The major religions of India includes: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Jainism
• The units of solidarity of the country are:

i.          The Indian, family, kinship and society

ii.           The status of a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic country

iii.           The sharing of elements of tolerance, acceptance and adaptability

iv.          The social reformers

III. References:

• Sahay, Vijoy.S, and Pradip K. Singh. Indian Anthropology. Allahabad: India: K.K. Publications, 1998.
• Mandelbaum, David G. Society in India. Bombay: India: Popular Prakashan, 1996
• Dube, S.C., Indian society. New Delhi: India: National Book Trust, 1996
• Davis, Richard H. Introduction: A brief history of religions in India, edited by Donald S. Lopez.
• Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995. p.3-52
• Ref:http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/04-Distribution_by_Religion.pdf (accessed on 5th June, 2015)
• Ref: http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/indiaatglance.html (accessed on 6th June, 2015)
• Ref: http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/india/India994-15.htm#TopOfPage(accessed on 7th June, 2015)