20 Upper Palaeolithic Culture of Europe

D. K. Bhattacharya

It is the last of the three chrono-cultural stages of the Pleistocene period. Sometimes back when the outer limit of Pleistocene was shifted by about 2000 years by geo-chronology experts many early Holocene culture came within the ambit of Pleistocene. These terminal Pleistocene cultures (some of which may have been earlier counted as Mesolithic e.g., Azilian) were now termed as Epi-Palaeolithic. Since most archaeological exercises were initially done in France, it was generally prescribed by Gabriel de Mortillet that Upper Palaeolithic in France constitute three traditions-Aurignacian, Solutrean and Magdalenian, in chronological order. In 1933 D. Peyrony excavated a site called Laugerie-Haute and suggested that Aurignacian and Perigordian are two parallel traditions. The first layer lying over Mousterian is called Lower Perigordian or Chattelperronean. After this occurs several layers of Aurignacian and finally the Upper Perigordian or Gravettian levels occur. The duration of these two parallel traditions is found to be from 34,000 to 20,000 B.P. The various levels of both Perigordian and Aurignacian at Laugerie Haute is shown with such designations as Perigordian I or Aurignacian I etc. Between 20,000 and 17,000 B.P. occur several layers of Solutrean tradition. The last tradition- Magdalenian is taken to occur between 17,000 to 9,000 B.P. The northern flat-land in Germany, Poland, Denmark, Belgium, and Hungary was never occupied during most of the Pleistocene period. It is around 15,000 B.P. that a group of men penetrated in this inhospitable zone for the first time. The culture produced by these is generally referred to as Hamburgian, Ahrensburgin and Federmesser. In terms of chronology these run parallel to upper Magdalenian. The basic difference between Perigordian and Aurignacian traditions is described as their difference in their method of retouching blades. Perigordian blades are abruptly backed so as to blunt one of the available sharp borders. Aurignacian blades are retouched to obtain a sturdy border which maintains the sharp border. This is called semi-abrupt retouching. It is important to note that 90 percent of Upper Palaeolithic blades in the subsequent cultural traditions show blunting as the main method of retouching. Solutrean is the only tradition in which the abrupt retouching method is not very much favoured.

West Europe

Several rock shelters with the succession of all the four traditions have been described from this zone. The main sites are Langerie-Hante, La Ferrassie, Isturitz, La Madalein and Caminade. Perigordian I or lower Perigordian occurs as the earliest Upper Palaeolithic layer in some sites while in others Aurignacian I occurs as the earliest Upper Palaeolithic.

Lower Perigordian shows the emergence of a type in which a blade is backed along one border in such a manner that it meets the opposite sharp border at a wide angle. This is called the Chattelperronean knife. Along with this occur end scrapers and burins. Upper Perigordian which occurs after the main groups of Aurignacian starts after 22,000 B.P. that is nearly 12,000 years after lower Pergordian. Here varieties of backed blades flourish. The main tool type is called a Gravettian point. It is a blade in which the backed border meets the opposite border at an acute angle. Some blades are seen blunted at all the four borders. In some a wide angled tang is formed in the Gravettian point and these are called Font Robert points. In some a multiple burin is created on horizontal truncation of tiny blades and these are called Noailles burins. Generally speaking Perigordian tradition does not show any bone implements.

Aurignacian

This tradition occurs broadly during the same period of time as Perigordian (i.e, about 30,000 to 20,000 B.P). This tradition is characterised by the emergence of a large number of very specific types otherwise not known to occur in other traditions. Carinated end scrapers, basque burins and ivory bone points are some of the other specific types. Moderately broad blades retouched all around are a classic Aurignacian type. In some the lateral borders have a slight in-curve. These are called strangled blades. A carinated end scraper is made on a nodule. Retouchings are done from an already prepared flat under surface. These converge on the dorsal surface which has the hump of the core. Possible function of these types, it is argued, must have been like a push plain. Basque burins are prepared on thick flakes or blades in such a manner that one of the facets becomes convex in shape because of a previously made notch in the border. The ivory bone points are elongated and smooth in finishing. Initially they have a split base but in successive layers these keep changing first without a split base then becoming flat, oval and round in cross-sections. In the last Aurignacian layer which occurs after upper Perigordian at Laugerie Haute, the bone points are given a bevelled base.

Solutrean

This tradition is very much limited in its duration as also in its spread. It survived in parts of Spain and south west France (never beyond the river Rhone in the east and north of the river Loire in the north). Time of its duration is also only 2,000 years. At Laugerie-Haute it is found to occur between 19,000 to 17,000 B.P. Here Solutrean is recorded in three layers each separated by several sterile layers. Proto Solutrean, which represents the oldest form, marks the emergence of retouchings by series of parallel running scars removed by pressure flaking technique. During Middle Solutrean this technique of retouching reaches its zenith. Flat and thin points, sometimes measuring as much as 35cm X 8.8 cm X 0.9cm covered bifacially with these pressure flake marks appear during this stage. These are nick named as laurel leaf points. End scrapers, burins and borers are the other stone tool types. In the final Solutrean, these leaf points become smaller and these are now retouched unifacially. These have been named Willow leaf points. Other stone tool types remain more or less unchanged. However, it is important to mention that some Aurignacian types like carinated end scrapers, basque burins or even ivory points are also seen occuring in this tradition. Bird bones sharpened at one end and with fine hole pierced in the posterior end forms one very important tool type of this period. These eyed needles at once indicate the function of stitching leather having emerged as an important adaptational imperative.

Magdalenian

At Laugerie Haute this tradition emerges around 16000 B.P. and continues till 10,000 B.P. There are as many as seven stages identified here. Of these the first 3 stages are called lower Magdalenian and the last four layers are called upper Magdalenian. Burins, end scrapers and Gravette and micro Gravette points are the usual stone tool types that characterise all the Magdalenian layers. Two new stone tool types that appear in this tradition are raclette and parrot beak burins as also such spoke shaped borers as Epine and Zinken. Raclettes are round or rectangular thick flakes which are given very abrupt retouching all around. Parrot beak burins are also made on such thick flakes or blades where in a burin facet is created on a convex blunted border.

Bone tools form a majority component of this tradition. Almost all bone implements show some kind of art engraved on them. At times this is only a geometric design but in other times excellent animal shapes have been engraved in various positions. Harpoons show a progressive development through the four stages of upper Magdalenian. Harpoons with multiple barbs, some rectilinear and some curvilinear, are described from Magdalenian V. The other important bone implements of this period are baton-de-commandment and dart thrower. In the former several holes are driven along the length of an antler which is usually decorated extensively with engraving of animals. It was argued that probably Magdalenian society developed some form of centralized leadership for which a kind of symbolic insignia in the form of a rod of authority was used. (In French the same is meant by the term baton- de-commandment). Dart thrower is also an elongated shaft of antler at one end of which a hooked notch is created. Possibly darts were given push with this hook in the manner the Australian indigenous people use their spear thrower.

Parpallo is a cave site situated in the Valencia region of eastern Spain. The occupational levels identified at this site are not as numerous as in Laugerie- Haute. Here the lowest layer is Gravettian and overlying this occurs three layers of Solutrean. Finally occurs four different Magdalenian layers. The Solutrean tradition of Parpallo shows features which are not known in France. For instance, a series of small to medium sized arrow heads measuring 5-2.5 mm in length is found in the middle Solutrean layer. The leaf points are also quite different in shape and also in many cases have denticulated borders. Bone tools are not many in these layers but increase in both frequency and variety as one enters the Magdalenian levels.

Pin Hole Cave

This site in England has already been described in the Middle Palaeolithic of Great Britain. Above these Middle Palaeolithic levels occur the Upper Palaeolithic layers. This presents a Proto-Solutrean character merging with what has been described as Upper Aurignacian shouldered points. Gravette points, end scrapers and Chattelperronean knives are the other tool types. At a depth of nearly one meter from surface a reindeer rib measuring 21.5 cm. with an engraved human figure is recorded. This is a single line engraving of a standing man probably with an animal mark and with a pronounced representation of the genitals. Absence of Solutrean leaf points and Magdalenian harpoons at the site led many scholars to surmise that possibly Aurignacian and that too in a mixed form represented the only Upper Palaeolithic tradition of Britain. This was loosely termed as Cresswellian tradition.

To sum up, it will appear that Upper Palaeolithic in West Europe is represented with four distinct traditions, each of which occurs through several layers in south west France. This is also seen to spread to the north western part of Spain. Here one can see some regional development of style which is distinctly separate from France. In Britain we witness a late entry of Upper Palaeolithic tools. This region, however, does not show a kind of vertical development of the four French traditions. The general character of British Upper Palaeolithic can best be designated as Aurignacio-Gravettian or Creswellian as some experts will like to call them. Isolated evidence of harpoon at some palce or laurel leaf at another place only demonstrates individual dispersal from the Franco-Cantabrian region.

Central Europe

It is usually believed that rock art in West Europe could develop mainly because of the numerous caves and rock shelters spread over south- west France and northwest Spain. Central European Upper Palaeolithic sites are mostly situated in open air river beds. Consequently art in them developed more on moveable objects i.e., as home art. Willendrof is such an open air site on Danube terrace. 9 separate layers have been excavated of which one of the layers gave a radio-carbon date of 32,000 +_ 300 B.P. First 4 layers from bottom are described as Aurignacian and the rest i.e., layers 5-9 are designated as Gravettian. In other words both laurel leaf points and harpoons which are taken as marker types of Solutrean and Magdalenian respectively are conspicuous by their absence at Willendrof. The non-lithic component is represented by several bone and ivory awls and wards engraved with criss-cross lines. Besides these one 11 cm tall statuette in limestone of a fat and short female has been described as Venus of Willendrof. The breasts and the thighs of this figure are extremely exaggerated. The hands are shown resting on the upper part of the breasts. The legs taper down and end a little beyond the knees. The facial part is covered by wavy lines that extend also over the head. The naval and genital triangles are well defined. A light deposit of red ocher is also visible on these regions. Szeleta is a cave site in the north east part of Hungary. One of the implementiferous layers records a radio-carbon date of 32,580+_ 420 B.P. The early Szeleta layers have yielded as many as 82 balttspitzen. The next layer is termed developed szeleta. This yielded 63 blattspitzen, burins, borers and numerous Gravettian points. The enormous amount of blattspitzen found here renders Szeleta as the type site of these tools. The origin and development of blattspitzen of at least parts of Europe seems to be traceable to the Szeletian tradition.

Meiendrof

It is situated in the same area surrounding Hamburg where the late glacial ice melted to form large stretches of marshy land with lakes in places. The cultural material has been recovered from 2 meters below the surface. Several end scrapers, burins, spoke shaped borers and Hamburgian points and some microliths constitute the industry. Reindeer antlers are cleverly cut in such a manner that splinters with natural bends were obtained. The technique is called groove-and-splinter technique. In one case a reindeer skeleton is found lying on its back with a stone placed on its thorax. It was interpreted as some kind of ritualistic sacrifice. It will appear that Meiendrof represents a late Magdalenian splinter group that had penetrated in the Periglacial region. Stellmoor is another site of similar kind lying just about 1 km. from Meiendrof. Here three different cultural layers with slight amount of variation in the tools have been described. The oldest one is termed Hamburgian, the next one is termed Ahrensburgian and finally the last layer is termed Federmesser.

To sum up, Upper Palaeolithic in Central Europe shows no or very little internal heterogeneity. Whether it is Willendrof or any other such sites as Dolni Vestonice in Moravia which has not been described here, we find there is a uniform Aurignacian- Gravettian sequence. Szeleta in the east also has the same character but the blattspitz dominate the entire industry. Northern flat land develops a very interesting culture and seems to show almost a mono-species adaptation. No wonder they develop a special technique of taking out carved splinters from reindeer antlers.

Balkans Europe

This region was continuously occupied from Middle Palaeolithic period. For instances Crvena Stijena which had yielded an industry of pygmy non-Mousteroid tools shows Upper Palaeolithic in its upper layers. These continue to be diminutive is size (1.5 cm- 3 cm in length). The tools are more Gravettian than Aurignacian. Special pieces of shells and pigments were found in these layers. Potocka is a cave site situated in Olschewa ranges. The basic character of the industry is Gravettian. Some good flake points and retouched blades which are also found in association with the Gravettian tools make some authors believe this as a Mousterio-Aurignacnian or Mousterio-Perigordian in character.

East Europe

There are two open air sites in this region which are taken as classic excavation. In both of them the earliest occupation is a perfectly Mousteroid Middle Palaeolithic. On the upper terrace of the river Don occurs a cluster of 17 Upper Palaeolithic sites. This cluster is called Kostienki. One of the most significant features of these sites is the evidence of hut ground plans which can be as big as 35 meters x 16 meters with as many as 9 hearths in a row along the central region of the floor. The tools represent an Aurignacian dominance during the early layers but very soon they develop into a Gravettian type with varieties of shouldered points.

Several rods, spatula and animal figures are made on antler and ivory. At least 5 completed and several broken or incomplete venus figures are recorded. These are made on ivory or limestone. These differ from Willendrof in the fact that a band is shown round the breast in some and in some this band is shown round the waist. Molodova is on the terrace of the river Dniester. Upper Palaeolithic occupation is dated to 23,700 +_ 320 B.P. Ground plans as also post holes are recorded from some of the layers. Number of hearths filled with charred bones, charcoal and flint are some times as many as 25. The stone industry in general can be best described as Aurignacio- Gravettian. East Europe, Therefore, represents an Upper Palaeolithic which is not very different from Willendrof.

To sum up, we have a situation where Franco- Cantabrian region seems to be more of an exception than otherwise. Nowhere in Europe, may it be Britain in the West or Central, Balkan and Eastern section do we have such clear cut vertical sequence of four distinct traditions as is evidenced in the Franco-Cantabrian region. So far no explanation for this peculiarity of this region has been suggested by any experts. An expert named Prof. Lynch had suggested that Upper Palaeolithic folk moved from east to west. They carried an Aurignacio- Gravettian cultural tradition. Naturally they were also called East Gravettian. Reaching the west they stopped with the Atlantic Ocean. Thus being trapped they started getting polarised into separated distinct cultures. The argument, however, cannot explain the emergence of Solutrean and also its sudden disappearance. Thus, an explanation for this difference has to wait until more sites are excavated in France and rest of Europe.

References and Suggested readings

• Palaeolithic Europe. Netherland: Humanities press. Bhattacharya, D.K. (1977).
• People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Fagan B. M. (2004).
• Frameworks for dating Fossil man.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Oakley, K.P. (1966).
• The Explanation of culture change: Models in prehistory. London. Duckworth. Renfrew, C. (ed.). (1973).
• Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. Lee, R.B and I. Devore (Eds.).( 1977).
• An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology. New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston, INC. Hole, H. and R.F. Heizer. (1969)