21 Mesolithic Culture of Europe

D. K. Bhattacharya

Worsae in 1851 recorded microliths from heaps of putrified shell refuse, commonly referred to as Kitchen Midden from Denmark. The significance of these as representing a cultural transition from Palaeolithic to Neolithic was not realized. Then Piette (1887) with his discovery of the cave of Mas d Azil form the Pyranean region of France, for the first time, demonstrated the evidence of Mesolithic culture in stratified context. Mesolithic now is defined as the earliest of Holocene culture and is characterised by a predominence of microliths . Since microliths are known to occur from within Upper Palaeolithic extending to Epi-Palaeolithic, Mesolithic needs to be defined more correctly on the basis of chronology on the one hand and preceding evidence of productive economy i.e., Neolithic on the other hand. It appears, however, that in Europe neither the geo-climatic changes marking the beginning of Holocene, nor the characteristic Mesolithic cultural features appeared simultaneously all over. In a very broad sense, this cultural period in Europe in taken to have survived from 8000 to 3000 B.C. On the floral ground early Holocene is divided into three stages in north Europe. Pre-Boreal vegetation stages of Birch and Pine is dated between 8000 to 6500 B.C. This is followed by Boreal with Pine and Hazel and this is dated between 6500-5500 B.C. Last phase is called Atlantic period and this is taken to have lasted between 5500-3000 B.C.

Palaeolithic period containing beautifully finished large to medium sized stone and bone tools disappearing and replaced by rather insignificant looking microliths appears rather enigmatic on a superficial observation. It has been argued that Holocene climate made large mammals migrate to the arctic zone. Many of them like wooly mammoth and rhinoceros went extinct. Huge amount of melt water from the receding glaciers created number of bogs and lakes. Water level of the sea in the Baltic coast rose at places by almost 100 meters. Seeking adaptation to this changed ecology required the invention of bow and arrow or any other missile that can fly in the air. This was mainly because the large mammals have now been replaced by large birds who were all flocking near the water bodies to hunt fishes. Man re-equips himself to shift his subsistence base to fishes and birds. Hence Mesolithic economy is also referred to as “fishing and fowling” economy. Microliths were, as such, best suited to fly when attached in combination. It is argued that attaching microliths in a handle provides tremendous amount of mechanical advantage depending on the length of the handle. Finally microliths unlike the entire range of tools made by man in the preceding period has the advantages of spare part concept. That is if one piece gets damaged in a series of microliths attached, and the whole implement need not be freshly made any longer. Thus, the microliths, the advantages of which were not entirely unknown to the Late Palaeolithic hunters, took over in Mesolithic as the main cultural type. These tiny glassy, stone blades were not only easy to manufacture once one masters the fluting technique, but they were also good for economizing the raw material. Properly attached to antlers or other organic sticks, they can be used to improvise a large number of real efficient tools. Arrow, harpoons, hooks, knives and host of other tools for specific functions could be improvised within few minutes.

Mesolithic traditions developing around West Europe indicate some degree of realtionship with the Upper Palaeolithic of the region. In the Central and Eastern regions, however, such a relationship is not demonstrable mainly because a generalized Epi-Palaeolithic had already consolidated in these regions before the onsets of Holocene. This Epi-Palaeolithic had not only developed proficiency within its new environment; but also in all probability migrated towards the west and contributed in the formation of the Mesolithic tradition of the west. In south and south east Europe the changes brought about in the environment with the onset of Holocene is not as well marked as in north Europe. There seems to be some indications of periods of high aridity at the beginning, subsequently a generalized Mediterranean climate settles down. The discovery of farming in the Middle-East around the beginning of Boreal stage has caused such a rapid change and cultural contact in the whole of Danubian and south-eastern European Mesolithic that a clear-cut delimiting of Mesolithic in this area often poses problem. It is probably because of this that such Mesolithic assemblages often get designated as “Aceramic Neolithic”. We might discuss the Mesolithic of Europe under the following major traditions.

Azilian: It is a primary site in south-west France and is seen directly overlying Magdalenian deposit. A radio-carbon date for this Mesolithic layer of found to be 10,500 B.C. It is quite easily counted within Epi-Palaeolithic of south Europe. The microliths include the famous Azilian points, small rectangular end scrapers, scalene triangles and lunates. In addition to these a flat harpoon with an oval eye pierced in the body forms the most important non-lithic tool type. Overall, Azilian industries are charactrised by a variety of painted and engraved pebbles, the function of which till to date remains enigmatic. The paintings are mainly horizontal bands of rather thick streaks, crosses and spots. The point used is mainly red ocher.

Tardenoisean: TheAzilian lived mostly in the cave mouths or rock shelters and are usually found in definite stratigraphy overlying the Palaeolithic industry. In the case of the Tardenoisean such a clear and definite stratigraphy is almost rare. This is the most widely distributed Mesolithic tradition of West Europe. It is believed to be of the same age as Azilian. In cultural features Tradenoisean is characterised by the introduction of geometric microliths predominated by trapeze and triangles. The other tool types include backed blades and micro-burnis. Azilian harpoons and painted pebbles are not found in this tradition.

Asturian: This is a tradition know from the Cantabrian coast of Spain and North Portugal. It is very atypical Mesolithic tradition and consists of rather big to medium sized pebbles shaped into picks and end scrapers with unifacialflakings. The cultural significance of this tradition with west European Mesolithic is not yet fully understood.

Larnian: This represents a local tradition of north Ireland. The tools consist of backed blades, end scrapers points and burins. There are also some heavy tools like choppers and picks found with this industry. Clearly one can see an Upper Palaeolithic ancestry for these tools

Sauveterranean: In south France around 8000 B.C. a site called sauveterre- La- Lemance shows the full fladged Mesolithic culture. This tradition is characterised by notched blades, small blades retouched all around to form a single or a double point, triangular points, lunates, trapeze, borers and end scrapers. This culture seems to have spread to the north to Belgium, Holland and even in England. In the east some German sites and even some Swiss as also Czechoslovakian areas seem to have had contact with this tradition.

Maglamosean: The tradition is named after the famous bog found in south Jutland in Denmark. It is known to have emerged in north Europe around 6,800 B.C. and may have survived well in to the 5th millennium B.C. It represents pygmy end scrapers, picks, and backed blades with notched shoulders. Besides these numerous usual microlithscharacterise this tradition. Trapeze is, however, not found in any Maglamosean industries. The non-lithic component is very rich and contains several harpoons with single row of barbs, fish hooks, eyed needles and variety of other antler pieces. One remarkable find of this industry is a medium sized stone tool hafted on an antler head. Several adzes with well finished borders from another interesting were also found. In Britain a famous Maglanmosean site named Starr Carr was excavated by Grahm Clark. Here besides the usual triangles, lunates, Burins, backed blades and end scrapers a large number of pointed antlers with several kinds of barbs on them were also found. It is also at this site that the first evidence of a domesticated dog was claimed.

Kitchen Midden: This is a tradition which is not only found around the Maglamosean area but is also more or less of the same period. This is so named because of its association with huge shell heaps. Though co-eval with the Maglamosean Kitchen Midden does not yield the beautiful harpoons, bone points and fish hooks famous in the former. Further, in this tradition axes seem to be preferred instead of adzes. Some of the Kitchen Midden sites yield fragments of handmade and ill fired pottery, hitherto to not known in other Mesolithic industries of this region. Stone tools include Trapeze, lunates, backed blades and burins.

Champignian: This tradition is mostly distributed in north Europe and belongs to a period of around 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C. The most significant feature of this tradition is the practice of pit-dwellings. These are convenient holes dug into the ground within which men and women lived. The tools of this period are found from the holes of these dwellings. These mainly include medium to large size flaked axes, picks and small transverse arrow heads. Besides these the usual microliths occur in plenty. Bone tools are not many.

Ertböll: This is a late and a mature Mesolithic culture of north Europe. It is dated around 4000-2,500 B.C. In stratified context, in some cases, this is found overlying a Maglamosean industry. In tool typology of this tradition one can see similarities with the Maglamoseans. There are several core axes and adzes known from this tradition. Microlithic element is almost exclusively represented by Trapezes. Burins and end scrapers are the other stone tools which are found occasionally. Pierced antlers, points and adzes made on antlers form the non-lithic tool types. The most significant among the finds is a bone comb and a complete handmade and ill fired pottery. The latter finds will indicate some kind of contact with a nascent Neolithic community in the neighborhood.

To sum up the origin and spread of Mesolithic in Europe the following points emerge as important.

1.  Azilians developed in the region where Magdalenians ruled for 6 to 8 thousand years. It also created its own special features like harpoons with a hole or painted pebbles. Progressing northward from the Pyrannean region it is soon overwhelmed by the Tardenoiseans.

2. North Europe was not occupied till about 15,000 B.C, when the Epi- Palaeolithic folks penetrated in this region for the first time. Within about another 7000 years several local traditions mushroom in this region. It is possible that some of these traditions may have been derived from the Hamburgin and the Ahrensburians.

3. Maglamosian out of these local developments show a rich group of antler tools which easily compare with the Hamburgians and the Ahrensburgians.

4. Both Asturian and Larnian show adaptation within forest ecology. These do not show any inclination to spread out in the flat lands.

5. Central Europe remained totally under the domain of the Tardenoiseans until the Maglamoseans spread into this region. Ertböll is a late development from within Maglamosean but heavily influence by the funnel breaker folks bringing Neolithic elements through the Danubian course.

6.  Finally it will appear that West Europe, more specifically the northern Scandinavian region, continued with a Mesolithic culture for the entire middle Holocene period. The central and eastern Europe as compared to this had Mesolithic culture for only 4 to 5 thousand years. The alluvial plains of the Dannube and its tributaries played a very important role in the diffusion of Neolithic elements of middle-east into this region.

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