10 Mesolithic Cultural Chronology

K. Polley

1. Introduction

Mesolithic is considered as the period of last hunter-gatherers of the world (Joachim, 2002:115). It is placed in between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age), and often taken to begin with the onset of Holocene and end with the advent of food production. The meaning of Mesolithic and the list of industries assigned to this period are not very uniform. As with other subdivisions of the Stone Age, the term ‘Mesolithic’ carries technological (microliths, composite tools), chronological (Early Holocene), and socioeconomic (broad-spectrum resource use, economic intensification, semisedentism) connotations. The concept of the term Mesolithic goes back to the time of John Lubbock (1965), who divided Stone Age into two epochs, the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. These two epochs were thought to be separated by a gap, when mid-latitude Europe was abandoned after the retreat of the reindeer and their hunters to the extreme north (Delson et al., 2000:840). However, Lubbock developed the concept of Mesolithic, but the term was originally coined by Westropp in 1866 (Ray and Ghosh, 1980:165). In later time the idea of the Mesolithic took its shape with the excavations at Mas d’Azil (France) and other sites documented the existence of Early Holocene hunting-and-gathering cultures in mid-latitude regions. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, several authors (e.g., A.Brown) had suggested independently the use of the term Mesolithic for these industries, although the first synthetic studies of European Mesolithic industries, compiled by J.G.D.Clark, were not published until the 1950s (Delson et al., 2000:840).

2. Terminological Controversies

Till now there are some controversies regarding the proper usage of the term. Some scholars reserve the designation Mesolithic for northern and western Europe, where societies adapted to forest-based subsistence, practicing hunting, gathering, and fishing, and using composite tools succeeded one another over perhaps 6Kyr before the advent of domesticated stock and agriculture. In this view, societies that continued a Paleolithic way of life, characterized by nomadic hunting of large herbivores, or whose tool traditions continue relatively unchanged from Late Pleistocene to Holocene times, are referred to the Epipaleolithic, a term originally suggested by Obermaier as a synonym for Mesolithic. Such societies were found in the extreme north of Europe, where reindeer hunting continued to form the subsistence base, and in the Mediterranean Basin, where red deer and other forest species dominated both Late Pleistocene and Holocene assemblages and where Epigravettian industries continue with no abrupt shifts from the glacial maximum at ca. 20–18Ka. into the Holocene. Epipaleolithic also refers to final Late Pleistocene and Holocene industries of North Africa (Delson et al., 2000). In contrast to the use of Mesolithic to refer to specialized Holocene hunter-fishers of Europe, V.G.Childe and others reserved the Mesolithic (or Protoneolithic) designation for contemporaneous societies of southwestern Asia and northeast Africa that were experimenting with food production. The Mesolithic stage encompassed only those societies actually in transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic. In this view, it is the European Holocene industries that are relegated to the Epipaleolithic and whose adaptations are seen as a specialized dead end in human cultural evolution. To resolve these conflicting uses of the term, several authors (e.g., T.D.Price) have emphasized the chronological aspects of the Mesolithic and suggested that this phase incorporates all post-Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers, whatever their location, dietary or technological specializations, or experimentation with domesticates (provided that most of the diet is still derived from wild resources). In such a definition, the Mesolithic industries of northwestern Europe constitute a large part of the universe under discussion, since domestication of food resources was not established in this area until relatively late, after 6Ka. On the contrary, the term Mesolithic is rarely used to refer to African Late Pleistocene and Holocene hunter-gatherers, although archaeological sites in southern Africa dominated by stone and bone tools and remains of wild animals are dated to the last 200 years (Delson et al., 2000). In India also a number of scholars are in favor to use the term ‘Microlithic’ instead of the term Mesolithic to the prehistoric people using microlithic tools as an essential component of their material culture (Murty, 1979; Jayaswal, 2009:5; Mishra et al., 2013:91-93). Some archaeologists argue that late Pleistocene microlithic cultures of India should be assigned to the “Upper Paleolithic Phase” where as the term Mesolithc should be applied only to microlithic industries of the Holocene (Mishra, 2013:91-93).

3.  Mesolithic Cultural Chronology in Europe

The time span of the Mesolithic period in Europe is considered as roughly between 10300 BP. and 5000 BP (Joachim, 2000). But some Pre-historians claim that it continued up to 2000 BP. European Mesolithic can be broadly divided into two distinct phases, namely- Early Mesolithic (10,300 – 8000/7500 B.P) and Late Mesolithic Period (8000 YBP up to the beginning of Neolithic) (Joachim, 2000). In Europe, a chronological gradient is observed from southeast to northwest, in which this transition took place from the 8th millennium BC (in the southeast) to the 4th millennium BC (in the northwest), depending on the adaptation rates of the food-producing ways of life that followed. In the Near East, this transition begins earlier, during the 12th millennium BC (the ‘‘Natufian’’), and is quickly replaced by the Early Neolithic which developed directly from the preceding Natufian (in contrast to Europe). The schema is fairly similar in North Africa, with the Capsian. But, in our view, in the modern world, entire regions still practiced what could be considered to be ‘‘Mesolithic’’ ways of life until the first European contacts: British Columbia, South Africa, Amazonia (Otte, 2009). The early Neolithic cultures includes various industries like Azilian, Tardenoisean and Asturian, most of which are distributed in western part of Europe, whereas Late Mesolithic period includes industrial phases like Maglemosian, Kitchen-Midden and Campignian which are mostly distributed in North Europe.

Climate of the Mesolithic Europe is characterized by the advent of Post-glacial climatic condition, which is known as Boreal climate. This climatic phase is characterized by the growth of forest in response to the warmer post-glacial climatic condition. This forest development gives names of the Pre-Boreal and Boreal phases and is the underlying cause of most of the changes in Mesolithic tool types. The most obvious example to this is the appearance of first true axe tools, as response to the increased urgent need for tree felling and wood working. On the other hand due to the retreat of the last-glaciations accumulating ice in various areas gave rise to the flowing of rivers, springs etc. and formation of tanks, lakes and water logged areas. As a result of warmer climate and de-Glaciation the sea level started rising considerably. So, a forested ecology with a number lakes and bogs were the characteristic feature of environment of Europe during Mesolithic (Joachim, 2000).

This new climatic condition has its effect on the economy of the Mesolithic culture of Europe. This cultural period was not monolithic. In different climatic zone, different types of industries and culture flourished. The people residing near forest developed tool types suitable for wood work and in major cases depended upon hunting. On the other hand there were numbers of people who lived near the coastal regions and paid great emphasis in collecting different aquatic resources, particularly mollusks and fishes. The characteristic tool type of Mesolithic people is known as microliths, a new type of tiny stone implement having geometric shape. The microlithic were of different shape like lunate, triangular, trapezoid etc. The microliths were used as the barbs or tips of the arrow heads or harpoons or were set in a row to form a continuous sharp cutting edge. This implies the use of some adhesive substance like resin. Mesolithic shows many trends of Neolithic like domestication of certain animals like dog. Mesolithic people of Europe developed pottery in certain areas. Another notable Mesolithic implement is bow and arrow. Some stone tools like axes were also manufactured fulfill the purpose of wood work.

4. Mesolithic Cultural Chronology in Africa

The upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultural period of Africa are often known as ‘Late Stone Age’ (Phillipson, 2005:92) or sometimes ‘Later Stone Age’ cultures (Mitchel, 2005:150). The so-called ‘Late Stone Age’ industries generally show reduction in artefact size, and the resultant tiny tools (microliths) were often fitted into handles, several sometimes being used together to form a composite tool. This innovation, which characterizes Clark’s mode-5 technology, arose in sub-Saharan Africa in a mode-3 context; it involved devising a new way of steeply trimming the edges of flakes or blades in order to blunt them, so that they did not split their hafts or cut their users’ fingers. This blunting retouch, known as backing, also served to provide a key for the mastic that was used to hold the stone inserts in place in their hafts. Studies of edge-wear and mastic remains have provided some indications of the various ways in which such artefacts may have been used and in rare instances complete hafted specimens have survived, as in certain South African caves and at Columnata in Algeria. It is highly probable that some backed microliths were used as tips and/or barbs for arrows which are first indicated in the archaeological record around this time. Ancient Egyptian specimens are also informative in this connection. Use of the bow and arrow, especially with poison applied to the latter, would have revolutionized hunting (Phillipson, 2005).

Evidences of absolute dates have been recovered from various Middle Stone Age or Late Stone age archaeological sites of Africa. A number of scholars have proposed that the Middle Stone Age Howiesons Poort Industry in South Africa, which dates to approximately 60–80,000 YBP, reflects fully modern human behaviour because it contains several characteristic features of the Late Stone Age, including exchange of formal blade-based backed tools made on exotic lithic raw materials and intra-site spatial organization patterns around hearths. However, other scholars argue that the Howiesons Poort does not reflect fully modern behaviour because its resource exploitation patterns seem less effective than those of the Late Stone Age in similar environmental contexts. Unlike the Late Stone Age, the Howiesons Poort also lacks ground bone artefacts and art. In sub-Saharan Africa, few sites with Late Stone Age horizons or shaped bone tools have been dated to older than 40,000 YBP. Vogel & Beaumont (1970, cited in Ambrose, 2005:379) proposed the Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age transition in southern Africa occurred about 40,000 years ago, based mainly on early dates from Border Cave. In equatorial Africa, the Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age transition seems substantially earlier than in southern Africa. The Late Stone Age at Matupi Cave, Zaire, has a charcoal radiocarbon date >40,700 YBP. Shum Laka rockshelter in Cameroon has an LSA occurrence at the base of the sequence, associated with dates of 30,300 and 31,700 YBP. Studies on other Late Stone Age sites of Africa indicate that The Late Stone Age sites of Africa can be dated between 40–47,000 YBP. The Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age transition is likely to be at least 40,000 YBP at Border Cave, Matupi, Mumba, Nasera, Olduvai Gorge and Prospect Farm (Ambrose, 2005:379-380).

5.  Mesolithic Cultural Chronology in India

It is mentioned earlier that in India a number of scholars are in favor to use the term ‘Microlithic’ instead of the term Mesolithic to the prehistoric people using microlithic tools as an essential component of their material culture (Murty, 1979; Jayaswal, 2009:5; Mishra, 2013:91-93). Some archaeologists argue that late Pleistocene microlithic cultures of India should be assigned to the “Upper Paleolithic Phase” where as the term Mesolithc should be applied only to microlithic industries of the Holocene (Mishra, 2013:91-93). Keeping apart these terminological controversies it can be said that microlithic cultures of India has its root in the preceding phase of upper Paleolithic industries is proved both by the continuation of the archaeological stratigraphy from the upper Paleolithic to the microlithic and the development of later category tool from the former category. Seeing this continuity Jayaswal (2009) has divided Mesolithic or Microlithic cultural phase of India into four distinct chronological divisions, they are Stage I, Stage II, Stage III and Stage IV. Stage I characterizes by the presence of earliest evidences of microlithic tools in various sites of Uttar Pradesh of India like sites of Belan and Son valleys. These sites can be dated in between 24,000 to 18,000 YBC. The Stage II indicates presence of microlithic industries in late Pleistocene and early Holocene archaeological sites. Some archaeologists recorded this phase as ‘Epi-Paleolithic’, ‘Early Mesolithic’ or ‘Advanced Mesolithic/Proto-neolithic’ phase (Sharma et al, 1980, cited in Jayaswal, 2009:6). Sites of this stage include Sarai Nahar Rai (dated 8395±110 YBC) and Bagor II  (dated 6380 ± 220 YBC). Stage III and Stage IV includes microlithic industries of India, date of which ranges from 6000 YBC to the time of Christian era. This cultural phase continued with three major technological stage of human culture, the Neolithic, the Chalcolithic and the Iron Age. Earliest site of this group is Adamgarh rock shelter of Madhya Pradesh and can be dated to 5500 ± 130 YBC; where as among the youngest sites of this stage evidence of Bhimbetka (dated to 950 ± 110 YBP) is noteworthy.

Hunting-gathering economy of the Upper-Paleolithic phase continued up to the earlier part of Mesolithic cultural phase of India. There was a marked growth in human population as is attested by the significantly increased number of sites. For example, in the case of rock shelters in central India while the Palaeolithic occupations occur only in a few shelters, evidence of Mesolithic culture occurs virtually in each one of the several thousand shelters either in the form of human habitation or paintings or both. Similarly, in the arid and semi-arid regions of western Rajasthan and Gujarat, which are extensively covered by sand dunes, Mesolithic artefacts are present virtually on every one of the thousands of dunes. A significant fact is that the first human colonization of the Ganga plains took place during this period as testified by the presence of more than two hundred archaeological sites in Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapur and Varanasi districts of Uttar Pradesh. Similarly, the effective colonization of the deltaic region of West Bengal and West Coast, particularly around Mumbai and in Kerala, took place during this period. The explanation for this dramatic increase in human settlements lies in the increased rainfall and its effect on the growth of plant and animal life at the beginning of the Holocene period, the evidence for which is provided by the pollen data from the salt lakes of western Rajasthan, deep weathering of sand dunes in Rajasthan and Gujarat and presence of windblown black clay deposits in central Indian rock shelters. This led to the availability of increased food resources all over the country and contributed to the growth of population (Mishra, 2001).

6. Summary

• Mesolithic is considered as the period of last hunter-gatherers of the world, which is placed in between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
• Geologically Mesolithic dates back from late Pleistocene to early Holocene when Ice Age had ended in the northern hemisphere of the earth.
• The time span of the Mesolithic period in Europe is considered as roughly between 10300 YBP. and 5000 YBP.
• Studies on other Late Stone Age (Mesolithic) sites of Africa indicate that The Late Stone Age sites of Africa can be dated between 40–47,000 YBP.
• Mesolithic or Microlithic culture of India can be dated in between 24,000 YBC to 950 YBP.