12 Cultural Chronology

D. K. Bhattacharya

Introduction

Chronology means a time schedule. Thus, to obtain a time table for the cultural features occurring during the stage called Palaeolithic Culture poses few problems. One of the foremost among these is the fact that it proposes a grand scheme that must be applicable to any part of the world where man was present. This, indeed, is farthest from truth and hence any cultural chronology constructed by the analyst is a general scheme based on observed features of some sites. Further Chronology is usually and traditionally based on environmental parameters and it is difficult to assume that these parameters were comparable in all parts of the Old World during the time of human evolution. Finally and most importantly the various cultural terms used by us are our or analysts’ construct. The authors of the various stages of culture did not know that they will be identified as the people who were say ‘x’ culture users. They were using culture to best suit their adaptation strategy.

Palaeolithic is the name given to the oldest human cultural stage which is defined by the geo-chronologically defined epoch called Pleistocene. That is, all or any culture occurring during the period of Pleistocene has to be named as Palaeolithic. The later cultural stages like the Mesolithic, Neolithic etc., has no such chronological marker for their definition. Therefore, it will not be wrong to state that while Palaeolithic is essentially a chrono-cultural term the rest of the cultural names more correctly refers to economic stages along with archaeological parameters.

Pleistocene is the longest epoch of the Quaternary period and is taken to begin around 4 million years ago and continuing till 8000 B.C. During this period several severe cold phases occurred when the Polar ice came down as far as 40° N in the temperate regions and heavy rainfall occurred all over the tropical region from 22° N to 22°S. These climatic episodes are named as Glaciations in the temperate region and Pluviation in the tropical region. Till about 1950, Pleistocene was defined on the basis of these climatic episodes and the first arrival of some specific generation of large mammals. Today, we have studies of the archaeo-magnetic polar reversals which provide some absolute dates for all these climatic phases.The arrival of anyspecies of the genus Bos, Equus and Elephus in terrestrial region and Hyalinthicabaltica in marine deposit is taken to mark the beginning of Pleistocene. This is referred to as the break of Villafrancian fauna. In terms of magnetic polarity this refers to the Gaussian stage. The next stage that follows is called Matuyama. Finally the reversal that takes place is called Brunhes. The relationship of the climatic stages with these archaeomagnetic dates are as follows.

The names written in bold letters refers to the five glacial phases identified by Penc and Brückner in 1901 from the Swiss Alps. The names written in boxes are the warm periods between two glacials and henceare called Interglacials. These are periods of biotic proliferation and hence show the evolution of several faunal types and their sub-species. Pleistocene is divided into four stages of which the lower one has a reversal date of 2.8 million years as a sub-phase within Matuyama. This is referred to as Oldowan chron. In the tropical region each of the glacial episodes are referred to as the first Pluvial, 2nd Pluvial etc., and the dry phases between two pluvials are referred to as Inter Pluvials. In East Africa these Pluvials are named on the basis of Lacustrine deposits of several lakes spread over the region. Thus the First Pluvial is called Kageran, the second is called Kamasian, the third Kanjeran and the fourth Gamblian.

Spread over this time format occur various kinds of tools which are identified on the basis of their morphology and technique of manufacture. It is significant to note at this juncture that one can generally observe a hierarchial patternof techniques and this is used to divide the cultural stages. Originating around the Oldowanchron in Lower Pleistocene and spread all over the Middle Pleistocene period occurs the Lower Palaeolithic culture. It is defined, again ongeneral terms, as the period which dominates in core tools. The actual sequence of development of this cultural phase is best demonstrated at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. This shows an archaic phase where pebbles have beenworked with minimum terminal flakings to form what has been termed as Chopper and Chopping tools. Accompanying these occur large flakes with minimum working done on them. Incidentally, this is the earliest of human culture and here it shows stratigraphically attested stages of gradual changes in the morphology of these pebble tools.

Around 1.8 million years these pebble tools develop into cores which are flaked all over their surfaces in order to give them a more distinct shape. These are called Bifaces or handaxes. Those among these which have a pointed end are called handaxes and those which have a transverse end are called cleavers. Gabriel de Mortilett in the beginning of twentieth century suggested that besides dividing Palaeolithic into cultural stages like Lower Palaeolithicetc, we should identify ‘traditions’ i.e. features which show progressive development through time. He suggested the following traditions corresponding to the divisions of Palaeolithic.

Originally three distinct traditions were suggested after Oldowan. These were Pre-chellean, Chellean and Acheulian. Today, however, all these are taken as part of Acheulian developmental stages. Infact, Prof. Abbe Henry Breuil??divided the Acheulian, at least for France into seven stages.These can be grouped as Lower Acheulian, Middle Acheulian, and Upper Acheulian as shown below.

Middle Palaeolithic is identified as a period of transition between Lower and Upper Palaeolithic. It is generally defined as a period dominated by only flake tools. However, one needs to remember that such a definition is not applicable all over. For instance, in Central Europe this marks the appearance of core tools in some sites or pygmy tools in other sites. In Western Europe this is marked by Mousterian tradition. This is characterized by de-lux types such as Mousterian points or side scrapers with flat surface retouch.

Upper Palaeolithic is the last stage of Palaeolithic succession and this is marked by the emergence of anatomically modern man or AMHS. Again on general terms this occurs around 40,000 years ago. The first tradition of Upper Palaeolithic is now viewed to contain two parallel traditions in south west France and these are called Perigordian and Aurignacian. Blade tools and bone tools characterise the Aurignacians, the Perigordian, as against this, has few or no bone tools but a large number of backed blade knives (Chattelperronean knives) and points (Gravettian points). These parallel traditions are followed by the Solutreans who stay for just about 2 thousand years (from 22,000 to 20,000). This tradition is characterized by bifacially pressure flaked thin points sometimes measuring as less as 1 cm in thickness. These points are nicknamed as ‘Laurel leaf’ and ‘Willow leaf’ points. The last and the final tradition of Upper Palaeolithicis called Magdalenian. This tradition is marked by a profusion of antler and ivory tools. Each of these bone tools are engraved with variety of animal motifs. Multiple barbed harpoons also evolve during this tradition.

The chronological arrangement of these traditions of Palaeolithic period seems to indicate that as if each of the traditions is universally changed in a pre destined manner one after another.Since this is farthest from reality, some authors have suggested the so called onion diagram in the following manner. This accepts that when one tradition changes to another at one place the older one can continue to occur for long time in another place.

Palaeolithic cultural chronology still remains tentative as newer evidences keep being discovered from various corners of the Old World.

References and Suggested Readings:

1. An outline of Indian Prehistory. Delhi: Palaka Prakashan. Bhattacharya, D.K. (2006).
2. Palaeolithic Europe. Netherland: Humanities press. Bhattacharya, D.K. (1977).
3. The Archaeology of Early Man. London: Faber and Faber. Coles, J.M. and E.S. Higgs. (1969).
4. The Old Stone Age: A study of Palaeolithic Times. London: Bowes and Bowes. Burkitt, M. (1963).
5. Prehistory of India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Sankalia, H. D. (1977)