{"id":82,"date":"2019-03-16T07:06:15","date_gmt":"2019-03-16T07:06:15","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=82"},"modified":"2019-04-03T05:10:38","modified_gmt":"2019-04-03T05:10:38","slug":"hominization-process","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/chapter\/hominization-process\/","title":{"rendered":"Hominization Process"},"content":{"raw":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/0vMI9rfjwVc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Contents of this unit<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1. Introduction: Hominization Process<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1.1 Anatomical and physiological changes.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1.2 Behavioural changes<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>2. Bipedalism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>3. Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>4. Modification of Jaws and Teeth<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>5. Enlargement of Brain<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6. Speech and Language<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6.1 Speech.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6.2 Language.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>7. Summary<\/strong><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Learning objectives:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module would help the students to understand the concept of Hominization process.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of anatomical changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of physiological changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of behavioural changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0Homanization\u00a0Process<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The homanization process may be viewed as the evolutionary transformation from prehomind to hominid status in the course of human evolution. It is also referred to as \u201caromophasis\" by Severtson (1939) and \"anagenis\" by Hur Oley (1942) and Rensch (1960). The original meaning of the word \u2018hominization\u2019 was the emergence of human among other living things. It means the threshold which prehumans had to cross before becoming human. This process concerns the nature and adaptive significance of major anatomical and physiological transformation in the evolution of the body from an ape like higher primate to the single variable species, Homo sapiens.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The changes that have occurred in the evolutionary development of mankind since its divergence from the last common ancestor and are shared with any living ape can be categorized into two groups.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-525\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"342\" height=\"283\" \/>\r\n\r\nFig. 1 Hominization Process of Homo sapiens\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n1.1\u00a0 Anatomical and physiological changes.\r\n\r\n1.2\u00a0 Behavioural changes\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-526\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"478\" height=\"245\" \/>\r\n\r\nFig. 2: Important Early Modern Homo sapiens Sites.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>I.\u00a0 Anatomical and physiological changes<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>A. Visible in fossils<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>B. Not readily visible in fossils<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Modification of hands and arms for more effective carrying and tool use.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Changes in skin and skin glands.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reduction in body hair.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Enlargement of the brain.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Continuous sexual receptivity of female.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reduction and remodeling of the jaws.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Partial reorganisation of the brain.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Modification of the vocal tract.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>II.\u00a0 Behavioural changes<\/strong>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>A. Directly detectable by archaeology<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>B. Not directly detectable by archaeology<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Increasing dependence on manufactured equipment and tools<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Language<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Suitable control on display of emotions<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Great increase in expressing ideas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Hunting- Meat eating:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Co-operation and division of labour<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Increasing interdependence through food-sharing<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Greater increase in social bonding mechanism- marriage and Marriage kinship reciprocation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Re-organization of behaviour around a 'Camp' or Home-Base.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Great increase in symbolism.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0The\u00a0 Hominization\u00a0 process\u00a0 consists\u00a0 of\u00a0 evolutionary\u00a0 transformation\u00a0 of\u00a0 hominoids\u00a0 into\u00a0 hominids. It\u00a0 is\u00a0 a process\u00a0 that\u00a0 has\u00a0 occurred\u00a0 in\u00a0 the\u00a0 hominoid-line\u00a0 since\u00a0 its\u00a0 divergence\u00a0 from\u00a0 the\u00a0 last common hominoid ancestor shared with any living ape. Initially the term has a restricted meaning and implied emergence of modern man, different from all other forms. Currently, however, the term is broadened and includes all those aspects of structural and behavioral changes that occurred in the Hominid line, finally leading to the emergence of modern human group.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Over a century, the prevailing view among evolutionists has been that Bipedalism preceded encephalization. The last decade of hominid fossil discoveries has made some surprising refinements in this view. The most dramatic discovery is the pattern revealed by the 3.7 to 3.0 mya old Australopithecus africanus. The members of this group were bipedal, yet their absolute brain size was about one third that of modern Homo sapiens and teeth were intermediate between pongid and hominid. These bodily transformations during the process of hominization were affected at quite unequal rate (differential rate of somatic evolution) implying that human evolution came about in mosaic from bearing on a certain number characteristics.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Important Early Modern Homo sapiens Sites<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-527\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"584\" height=\"243\" \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nAll such changes can be broadly grouped into following heads.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Bipedalism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hand manipulation and tool use (manual dexterity)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Modification of jaw and teeth.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Enlargement of brain<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Changes in vocal tracts, language and speech<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>1. Bipedalism<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 Analysis of postcranial elements of A. Africanus, A. Afarensis, A. Ramidus (Tim et al. 1994) and A. Anamensis (Leakey et al. 1995) clearly establishes Bipedalism to\u00a0 be\u00a0 one\u00a0 of\u00a0 the\u00a0 oldest\u00a0 of\u00a0 all hominid characteristics. The age of the earliest variant of australopithecines, A.Ramidus is estimated to be 4.4 mya. The appearance of this group took place perhaps one million years after the separation of ancestral lines leading to great apes and human. The branching out point between ape and human ancestors is estimated to be 5- 6 mya. According to Stanford (1995), A. ramidus was a biped; it s lower body was clearly adapted for walking on the ground, though they may\u00a0 have continued to use trees for gathering fruits and for shelter at night. Postcranial\u00a0 elements especially limb and pelvis anatomy of A. <em>afarensis <\/em>shows characteristics of bipedal adaptations. For example, iliac blades were short and broad, ischium was short, anatomy of hand and ankle joints were favorable, big toe was parallel. In all such features afarensis was more human like than ape.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In addition to post cranial elements, the Laetoli (Tanzania) foot prints of A. afarensis<em>, <\/em>proved that <em>Australopithecine <\/em>have existed around 3.77 mya, which is another proof of Bipedalism. It shows a convergent big toe, heel strikes, arches, etc. similar to humans in many aspects.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There are, however, certain features possessed by afarensis such as shorter hind limbs, longer foot, longer toes, etc. that suggest that australopithecine Bipedalism\u00a0 was\u00a0 different\u00a0 from,\u00a0 human\u00a0 Bipedalism. Such differences in the locomotory behaviour can be explained due to the habitat supposed to have existed in eastern African-woodland, bushland and dry savannah with patches of forest along rivers and lakes. Thus, they had to live somewhat less on the tree and more on the ground.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-529\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"385\" height=\"294\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Fig 3. Bipedalism<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>2 Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0The earliest <\/span>evidences<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> of hand manipulations that are <\/span>different\u00a0 from<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> apes and similar to <\/span>Homo\u00a0 can\u00a0 be<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> found in A.\u00a0 Afarensis<\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">. <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">The hand proportion of the members of this group <\/span>is\u00a0 approximately<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> similar to human proportions but differ from those of humans in having fingers more curved suggesting greater power grip. The hand anatomy of <\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">afarensis <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">also reveals that the precision grip was greater among them compared to that of the chimpanzee, but lesser than that of the Homo. A. <\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">afarensis <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">spent more time on the land than on the trees hence the hand-anatomy had started overshadowing the characteristics of hands of Homo and different from those of apes. Hominids with their manipulative hands, precision grip and contemplating brains, had been able to expand their ecological niche so far beyond the physical capabilities inherent in their makeup, one that no other animal has ever had the potential to achieve.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The classical view of anthropologists has been that the use of tools led to the distinction between human and ape that the split between the\u00a0 pongidae and the\u00a0 hominidae resulted\u00a0 from the acquisition\u00a0 of tool-use by one of the ancestral hominoid populations. Others now feel that environmental\u00a0 influence and adaptation to nonarboreal ecological niches were more important for early hominid evolution. However these divergent views are ultimately resolved, it is interesting to learn how far human technology and culture can be traced.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-530\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"609\" height=\"329\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Fig . 4: Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Recent palaeo-anthropological findings reflect the use of tools, antedates the origin of\u00a0 the\u00a0 big-\u00a0 brained <em>Homo sapiens <\/em>by at least a million and a half year. There is now indisputable evidence of the occurrence of modified stone tools that is 2\u00a0 million years old\u00a0 found\u00a0 in\u00a0 association with the\u00a0 bones\u00a0 of <em>Homo habilis. <\/em>In other words, tool-use\u00a0 and\u00a0 tool-making\u00a0 developed\u00a0 before\u00a0 hominid\u00a0 brain capacity had undergone remarkable increase. The old idea that a large brain and associated high intelligence were prerequisites for tool use is no longer tenable. The use of tools by\u00a0 primitive\u00a0 hominids may, in fact, have been a major factor in the evolution of the cerebral cortex and higher intelligence, for once the use and making of tools began to favour survival, there would be high selection pressure for neural mechanism promoting improved crafting and use of tools. The elaborate brain of <em>Homo sapiens <\/em>may be a consequence of culture as much as its cause. Hominization process, with respect to cultural attainments, had set in much before the modern man appeared on the earth. Oldowan industry of earliest <em>Homo habilis <\/em>clearly proves the point.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0Homo erectus <\/em>had not only perfected stone tools considerably but had also learned how to control and use fire, as revealed by radio isotope dated hearths in caves. With fire humans could cook their food they could keep themselves warm in cold weather; they could ward\u00a0 off predators\u00a0 and\u00a0 they could\u00a0 light up the dark to see. The\u00a0 hearth\u00a0 no\u00a0 doubt\u00a0 promoted\u00a0 the\u00a0 development\u00a0 of\u00a0 social\u00a0 organization and allowed an opportunity for the beginning of communication through spoken language.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div><span style=\"float: right\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/0vMI9rfjwVc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/download.png\" alt=\"epgp books\" width=\"75px\" height=\"75px;\" \/><\/a><br \/>\n<\/span><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>Contents of this unit<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1. Introduction: Hominization Process<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1.1 Anatomical and physiological changes.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>1.2 Behavioural changes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>2. Bipedalism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>3. Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>4. Modification of Jaws and Teeth<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>5. Enlargement of Brain<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6. Speech and Language<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6.1 Speech.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>6.2 Language.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><strong>7. Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Learning objectives:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module would help the students to understand the concept of Hominization process.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of anatomical changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of physiological changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">This module explains the type of behavioural changes that have occurred in human beings during the course of evolution<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0Homanization\u00a0Process<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The homanization process may be viewed as the evolutionary transformation from prehomind to hominid status in the course of human evolution. It is also referred to as \u201caromophasis&#8221; by Severtson (1939) and &#8220;anagenis&#8221; by Hur Oley (1942) and Rensch (1960). The original meaning of the word \u2018hominization\u2019 was the emergence of human among other living things. It means the threshold which prehumans had to cross before becoming human. This process concerns the nature and adaptive significance of major anatomical and physiological transformation in the evolution of the body from an ape like higher primate to the single variable species, Homo sapiens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The changes that have occurred in the evolutionary development of mankind since its divergence from the last common ancestor and are shared with any living ape can be categorized into two groups.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-525\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"342\" height=\"283\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177.png 342w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177-300x248.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177-65x54.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-177-225x186.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 342px) 100vw, 342px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Fig. 1 Hominization Process of Homo sapiens<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>1.1\u00a0 Anatomical and physiological changes.<\/p>\n<p>1.2\u00a0 Behavioural changes<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-526\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"478\" height=\"245\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178.png 478w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178-300x154.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178-65x33.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178-225x115.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-178-350x179.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 478px) 100vw, 478px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Fig. 2: Important Early Modern Homo sapiens Sites.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>I.\u00a0 Anatomical and physiological changes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>A. Visible in fossils<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>B. Not readily visible in fossils<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Modification of hands and arms for more effective carrying and tool use.<\/li>\n<li>Changes in skin and skin glands.<\/li>\n<li>Reduction in body hair.<\/li>\n<li>Enlargement of the brain.<\/li>\n<li>Continuous sexual receptivity of female.<\/li>\n<li>Reduction and remodeling of the jaws.<\/li>\n<li>Partial reorganisation of the brain.<\/li>\n<li>Modification of the vocal tract.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>II.\u00a0 Behavioural changes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>A. Directly detectable by archaeology<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>B. Not directly detectable by archaeology<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Increasing dependence on manufactured equipment and tools<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Language<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Suitable control on display of emotions<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Great increase in expressing ideas.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Hunting- Meat eating:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Co-operation and division of labour<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Increasing interdependence through food-sharing<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Greater increase in social bonding mechanism- marriage and Marriage kinship reciprocation.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Re-organization of behaviour around a &#8216;Camp&#8217; or Home-Base.<\/li>\n<li>Great increase in symbolism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0The\u00a0 Hominization\u00a0 process\u00a0 consists\u00a0 of\u00a0 evolutionary\u00a0 transformation\u00a0 of\u00a0 hominoids\u00a0 into\u00a0 hominids. It\u00a0 is\u00a0 a process\u00a0 that\u00a0 has\u00a0 occurred\u00a0 in\u00a0 the\u00a0 hominoid-line\u00a0 since\u00a0 its\u00a0 divergence\u00a0 from\u00a0 the\u00a0 last common hominoid ancestor shared with any living ape. Initially the term has a restricted meaning and implied emergence of modern man, different from all other forms. Currently, however, the term is broadened and includes all those aspects of structural and behavioral changes that occurred in the Hominid line, finally leading to the emergence of modern human group.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Over a century, the prevailing view among evolutionists has been that Bipedalism preceded encephalization. The last decade of hominid fossil discoveries has made some surprising refinements in this view. The most dramatic discovery is the pattern revealed by the 3.7 to 3.0 mya old Australopithecus africanus. The members of this group were bipedal, yet their absolute brain size was about one third that of modern Homo sapiens and teeth were intermediate between pongid and hominid. These bodily transformations during the process of hominization were affected at quite unequal rate (differential rate of somatic evolution) implying that human evolution came about in mosaic from bearing on a certain number characteristics.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Important Early Modern Homo sapiens Sites<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-527\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"584\" height=\"243\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179.png 584w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179-300x125.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179-65x27.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179-225x94.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-179-350x146.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 584px) 100vw, 584px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>All such changes can be broadly grouped into following heads.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Bipedalism<\/li>\n<li>Hand manipulation and tool use (manual dexterity)<\/li>\n<li>Modification of jaw and teeth.<\/li>\n<li>Enlargement of brain<\/li>\n<li>Changes in vocal tracts, language and speech<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. Bipedalism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 Analysis of postcranial elements of A. Africanus, A. Afarensis, A. Ramidus (Tim et al. 1994) and A. Anamensis (Leakey et al. 1995) clearly establishes Bipedalism to\u00a0 be\u00a0 one\u00a0 of\u00a0 the\u00a0 oldest\u00a0 of\u00a0 all hominid characteristics. The age of the earliest variant of australopithecines, A.Ramidus is estimated to be 4.4 mya. The appearance of this group took place perhaps one million years after the separation of ancestral lines leading to great apes and human. The branching out point between ape and human ancestors is estimated to be 5- 6 mya. According to Stanford (1995), A. ramidus was a biped; it s lower body was clearly adapted for walking on the ground, though they may\u00a0 have continued to use trees for gathering fruits and for shelter at night. Postcranial\u00a0 elements especially limb and pelvis anatomy of A. <em>afarensis <\/em>shows characteristics of bipedal adaptations. For example, iliac blades were short and broad, ischium was short, anatomy of hand and ankle joints were favorable, big toe was parallel. In all such features afarensis was more human like than ape.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In addition to post cranial elements, the Laetoli (Tanzania) foot prints of A. afarensis<em>, <\/em>proved that <em>Australopithecine <\/em>have existed around 3.77 mya, which is another proof of Bipedalism. It shows a convergent big toe, heel strikes, arches, etc. similar to humans in many aspects.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">There are, however, certain features possessed by afarensis such as shorter hind limbs, longer foot, longer toes, etc. that suggest that australopithecine Bipedalism\u00a0 was\u00a0 different\u00a0 from,\u00a0 human\u00a0 Bipedalism. Such differences in the locomotory behaviour can be explained due to the habitat supposed to have existed in eastern African-woodland, bushland and dry savannah with patches of forest along rivers and lakes. Thus, they had to live somewhat less on the tree and more on the ground.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-529\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"385\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181.png 385w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181-300x229.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181-225x172.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-181-350x267.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 385px) 100vw, 385px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Fig 3. Bipedalism<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>2 Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">\u00a0 \u00a0The earliest <\/span>evidences<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> of hand manipulations that are <\/span>different\u00a0 from<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> apes and similar to <\/span>Homo\u00a0 can\u00a0 be<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> found in A.\u00a0 Afarensis<\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">. <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">The hand proportion of the members of this group <\/span>is\u00a0 approximately<span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\"> similar to human proportions but differ from those of humans in having fingers more curved suggesting greater power grip. The hand anatomy of <\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">afarensis <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">also reveals that the precision grip was greater among them compared to that of the chimpanzee, but lesser than that of the Homo. A. <\/span><em style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">afarensis <\/em><span style=\"text-align: justify;font-size: 1em\">spent more time on the land than on the trees hence the hand-anatomy had started overshadowing the characteristics of hands of Homo and different from those of apes. Hominids with their manipulative hands, precision grip and contemplating brains, had been able to expand their ecological niche so far beyond the physical capabilities inherent in their makeup, one that no other animal has ever had the potential to achieve.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0The classical view of anthropologists has been that the use of tools led to the distinction between human and ape that the split between the\u00a0 pongidae and the\u00a0 hominidae resulted\u00a0 from the acquisition\u00a0 of tool-use by one of the ancestral hominoid populations. Others now feel that environmental\u00a0 influence and adaptation to nonarboreal ecological niches were more important for early hominid evolution. However these divergent views are ultimately resolved, it is interesting to learn how far human technology and culture can be traced.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-530\" src=\"http:\/\/antp01.epgpbooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"609\" height=\"329\" srcset=\"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182.png 609w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182-300x162.png 300w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182-65x35.png 65w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182-225x122.png 225w, https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/181\/2019\/03\/1-182-350x189.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 609px) 100vw, 609px\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Fig . 4: Hand anatomy and Tool use<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Recent palaeo-anthropological findings reflect the use of tools, antedates the origin of\u00a0 the\u00a0 big-\u00a0 brained <em>Homo sapiens <\/em>by at least a million and a half year. There is now indisputable evidence of the occurrence of modified stone tools that is 2\u00a0 million years old\u00a0 found\u00a0 in\u00a0 association with the\u00a0 bones\u00a0 of <em>Homo habilis. <\/em>In other words, tool-use\u00a0 and\u00a0 tool-making\u00a0 developed\u00a0 before\u00a0 hominid\u00a0 brain capacity had undergone remarkable increase. The old idea that a large brain and associated high intelligence were prerequisites for tool use is no longer tenable. The use of tools by\u00a0 primitive\u00a0 hominids may, in fact, have been a major factor in the evolution of the cerebral cortex and higher intelligence, for once the use and making of tools began to favour survival, there would be high selection pressure for neural mechanism promoting improved crafting and use of tools. The elaborate brain of <em>Homo sapiens <\/em>may be a consequence of culture as much as its cause. Hominization process, with respect to cultural attainments, had set in much before the modern man appeared on the earth. Oldowan industry of earliest <em>Homo habilis <\/em>clearly proves the point.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0Homo erectus <\/em>had not only perfected stone tools considerably but had also learned how to control and use fire, as revealed by radio isotope dated hearths in caves. With fire humans could cook their food they could keep themselves warm in cold weather; they could ward\u00a0 off predators\u00a0 and\u00a0 they could\u00a0 light up the dark to see. The\u00a0 hearth\u00a0 no\u00a0 doubt\u00a0 promoted\u00a0 the\u00a0 development\u00a0 of\u00a0 social\u00a0 organization and allowed an opportunity for the beginning of communication through spoken language.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-82","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":673,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/revisions\/673"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=82"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=82"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=82"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in\/antp01\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=82"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}