2 Relationship of Biological Anthropology with other branches

Dr. Meenal Dhall

Contents

1.     Introduction

2.     Biological/Physical Anthropology

3.     Relation of Biological Anthropology with other sciences

i.     Palaeontology

ii.    Psychology

iii.    Forensic Sciences

iv.     Physiology

v.     Human Biology and Zoology

vi.    Geology

vii.   Anatomy

viii.  Medical Sciences

ix.    Gerontology

x.     Demography

xi.    Ecology

xii.   Ergonomics

xiii.  Sports Physiology

xiv.  Population Genetics and Statistics

xv.   Public Health and Epidemiology

xvi.  Chemistry

xvii.  Botany

xviii. Geography

xix.   Neuroscience

Summary

Learning outcomes

After reading this module, readers will be able to

• Understand about the subject matter of Biological Anthropology
• Know and appreciate the inter-relationship between Biological Anthropology and other sciences
• Know about those branches of Biological Anthropology that have come up as a result of such an inter-connection between the two fields

    1. Introduction

Anthropology is the holistic and comparative study of humanity. It is the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity. Examining the origins of, and changes in, human biology and culture, anthropology provides explanations for the similarities and differences while undergoing through such processes. The four subfields of anthropology are biological/physical, social/cultural, archaeological, and linguistic. All of them consider variations in time and space, along with examining the process by which organisms cope with different environmental stresses through adaptation.

2. Biological/Physical Anthropology

The subject matter of biological/physical anthropology deals with human biological diversity in time and space. It includes the evolution of humans, their variability, and adaptations to environmental stresses. Using an evolutionary perspective not only the physical form of humans, such as bones, muscles and organs, are examined but their functioning that allows survival and reproduction is also examined. Within the field of biological anthropology there are many different areas of focus. The centre of all of them is biological variation that unites five special interests within biological anthropology:

1. Human evolution as revealed by the fossil record (paleoanthropology).
2. Human genetics.
3. Human growth and development.
4. Human biological plasticity (the body’s ability to change as it copes with stresses, such as heat, cold, and altitude).
5. The biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates.

   Biological anthropology studies man as an animal of the animal kingdom. I. S. Weiner divides the subject into two major fields-the study of man as a product of evolutionary process, and the study and analysis of populations. Both approaches center about the common theme of human variation. Anthropologists basically seek to answer two sets of question:-

(i) About the origin of humans and their evolution, this is generally studied under the topic of Human Paleontology or Paleoanthropology. The paleontologists/paleoanthropologists try to understand how humans evolved from apes to modern ‘homo sapiens’. Anthropologists who specialize in study of primates are called Primatologist.

(ii) The second set includes questions about how and why contemporary human populations vary biologically; this is studied under the topic of Human variation. To understand human variation, it seeks the help of other 3 disciplines i.e. Human Genetics, Population Biology & Epidemiology. These interests link biological anthropology to other fields of science such as biology, zoology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, and public health.

   Techniques used to date fossils and artifacts have come to anthropology from physics, chemistry, and geology. Because plant and animal remains often are found with human bones and artifacts, anthropologists many a times, collaborate with botanists, zoologists, and paleontologists.

3. Relation of Biological Anthropology with other sciences

i) Paleontology

A paleontologist is a scientist who studies fossils and the evolution of primates and hominids from the fossil record and from what can be determined through comparative anatomy and studies of social structure and behavior from our closest living relatives. A paleoanthropologist is a paleontologist who studies the fossil record of human evolution. Osteology—the study of bones—helps paleoanthropologists, who examine skulls, teeth, and bones, to identify human ancestors and to chart changes in anatomy over time. Paleoanthropologists often collaborate with archaeologists, who study artifacts, in reconstructing biological and cultural aspects of human evolution. Fossils and tools are often found together. Different types of tools provide information about the habits, customs, and lifestyles of the ancestral humans who used them.

Fig. 1 A palaeontologist assessing the skeletal remains.

Biological  anthropology  also  includes  primatology.  The  primates  include  our  closest  relatives—apes  and monkeys. Primatologists study prosimians, monkeys and apes, in order to understand the features that make each group distinct and those that link them together. Primatologists study their biology, evolution, behavior, and social life, often in their natural environments. Primatology also assists paleoanthropology, because primate behavior may shed light on early human behavior and human nature.

Certain techniques which are used in physics are also employed by the paleoanthropologists for dating the fossil finds from various sites.

ii.) Psychology

Another leading sub-field of biological anthropology, which is greatly contributed by Psychology, is psychological anthropology. Psychological anthropology investigates the psychological conditions that encourage endurance and change in social systems, with the goal of better understanding the relationship between culture and the individual. It approaches anthropological investigations through the use of psychological concepts and methods. The main approach used in psychological anthropology for a better understanding of human behavior is the assessment of stress level and its causes acting on a person. The consequences are then predicted, if the situation is in its preliminary stage and the required treatment is given. But when the stress levels reach great increase, situation which is non preventable, the person is cured with different psychological techniques and distressing the person as soon as possible. Such studies are not only meant for the social perspective of an individual but also helps in investigating whether it is one of the reasons for the normal/abnormal biological development of an individual and finally a population or society. Since the psychology of a person has lot to do with its behavior and growth, development and maturation of a person, hence this field is gaining lots of popularity these days.

iii.) Forensic Sciences

Skeletal biology concentrates on the study of anatomically modern humans, primarily from archaeological sites, and aims to understand the diseases and conditions these past people experienced prior to dying. Such evidences are studied with ease with the help of palaeopathologists, who deal with all such information. Paleopathology is the study of disease in the remains of organisms, be it humans or other animals, from archaeological sites. So, it is highly associated with bioarchaeology (study of human remains from archaeological sites), archaeology and also anthropology, aiming to reconstruct the history of disease over long periods of time by placing biological evidence within cultural context to explain the patterning seen. It is multidisciplinary by nature and uses a variety of analytical methods, from visual or macroscopic analyses to ancient pathogen DNA assessment. While on the other hand, Forensic anthropology, apart from dealing with the past remains excavated from various archaeological sites it also uses the study of skeletal biology to assist in the identification and analysis of more recently deceased individuals. In addition to this, various techniques of forensic sciences such as dermatoglyphics, serology, ballistics, DNA analysis, etc are used for solving numerous situations. Such cases often involve complex legal considerations.

Fig. 2 Fingerprints can be decoded using the knowledge of forensic sciences

iv). Physiology

An important aspect of human variation, which is the main focus of biological anthropology, includes how different groups respond physiologically to different kinds of environmentally induced stress, is also studied on a common grounds with the physiologists. Such stresses may include high altitude, cold and heat. Apart from this, the circulatory system, the respiratory system of humans is studied in great details with physiological perspective. With this view in mind, major topics such as heart rate, blood pressure, lung capacity during normal working hours and exercise, among different age groups, for both the genders, residing at any part of the world are studied. Such topics are fundamental to studies of adaptation in modern human populations dealt in biological anthropology under the sub-topic physiological anthropology.

Fig. 3 Body and its parts start functioning as soon as we are born until one of the vital organs (heart) stops its function.

   Nutritional anthropologists study the relationships between various dietary components, cultural practices, physiology and certain aspects of disease and health. Concepts like human growth, development and maturation are also closely related with nutrition.

v.) Human Biology and Zoology

Biological anthropology is the study of the biological perspective of man. Naturally it is study of the biological sciences. For understanding this gradual process of human evolution, physical anthropologists are in an emergent need to compare the biological features of man and animals. Modern physical anthropology is highly biology oriented. Human biologists concentrate on contemporary humans, examining not only their anatomy and physiology but also their reproduction and the effects of social status and other factors on their growth and development.

Study of human genetics has also become the essential part of physical anthropology. This particular trend of study of physical anthropology especially human heredity and the factors relating to it have been borrowed from the branch of zoology. Biological anthropology is highly contributed by various topics covered under the sub-branches of zoology such as molecular biology, biochemistry, endocrinology, etc.

vi.) Geology

Geology is the study of the nature and structural pattern of the earth-its land forms, rock formation, various strata of the earth, their formation, etc. Various happenings of the past and records of the oldest life forms that flourished millions of years ago is brought into light with the help of systematic study and analysis of the earth’s crust and different fossil-laden strata employing geological methods.

Fig. 4 A geologist working to know about the reason for the avalanche

In the study of human evolution as well as various cultural stages of man the physical anthropologists are to go a long way into the past. To study the various layers of earth and to understand the time sequences, biological anthropologists employ the knowledge and findings of the geologists. Geology plays a key role in the study of humans, particularly in the sub disciplines of paleoanthropology and archaeology. Anthropologists work closely with geologists and employ geological tools in order to reconstruct aspects of past environmental and ecological contexts from the time of our earliest human ancestors to that of modern peoples. Extrinsic selective pressures, or those that are derived from a human’s surrounding environment, are revealed through the study of the earth sciences. Anthropologists place the human individual, community, and population back into the environment and attempt to understand how humans interacted with that environment. From the origins of hominins, humans’ bipedal ancestors, to the appearance of modern people, anthropologists want to know about temperature, aridity and rainfall, landforms, and vegetation cover, among many other factors. From these basic environmental indicators, they surmise the kinds of habitats that may have been available and exploited by humans during those times and are simultaneously compared with those of the contemporary species.

vii).  Anatomy

Anatomy is one of the important areas of interest for biological anthropologists. In living organisms, bones and teeth are intimately linked to the soft tissues that surround and act on them. Consequently, for a thorough knowledge of soft tissue anatomy is essential to understand the biochemical relationships involved in movement. Such relationships are important in assessing the structure and function of limbs and other components of fossilized remains. Not only this, but also for assessing the evolution of different body parts and organs among the organisms, mainly humans, anatomy plays a key role in biological anthropology. For these reasons, many biological anthropologists specialize in anatomical studies.

viii.)  Medical Sciences

Now-a-days, Biological anthropology tries to explore the nature and extent of various hereditary or genetic diseases. The impact of genetics on biological anthropology has opened a new dimension in which various diseases and genetic abnormality oriented happenings have now, become the important items of discussion of biological anthropology. Various nutritional patterns, growth, deformations and their impact, anthropologists study in the light of medical sciences. In this way physical anthropology has been combined with medical science to bring forth a new discipline-Medical Anthropology.

Fig. 5

ix.) Gerontology

All living organisms undergo progressive changes in their structure and functioning, with time. So, these changes which begin at conception and end up on death are studied under gerontology. Therefore, different aspects related to growth, development and maturation are as much parts of gerontological studies as of any other science which studies these topics. Since biological anthropology studies humans, that too of all ages, hence gerontology becomes an indispensable part of it. Biological anthropology collaborates with gerontology for studying and understanding the process of ageing, its mechanism, complications, and implications among different age groups, especially among the older ones, belonging to different cultures and inhabiting different regions. With this approach, both the disciplines have actually formed an association named Association for Anthropology and Gerontology (AAGE), which is working in this direction.

x.) Demography

Demography is the science of population. The nature of population is studied through the factors like birth, death, migration, growth, spatial distribution, age-sex structure in the background of time. The studies are conducted through statistical methods. Various statistical data are collected on the features of population as stated and through a systematic analysis of the data the nature of population is brought out. In studying the anthropological perspectives of any human population group this sort of demographic analysis is essential. Thus the study of physical anthropology is inseparable from the demographic approach of viewing people.

Fig. 6 Pie chart-one of the methods of representing demographic data

xi.) Ecology

Ecology deals with the study of interrelationship between organisms and their surroundings environmental conditions. Human ecology refers to the study of the relationship patterns between the populations and their environment, and energy exchanges with other living organisms. In biological anthropology the study of human ecology is of special importance as it explores the nature and extent of human adjustments in relation to

Fig. 7

climate and other related matters. The mode of adaptation of human beings has affected the biological features and the study of these changing characteristics is indispensible in understanding human evolution. In biological anthropology, there is a specific scope for studying the pattern of adaptation to the natural environment.

Apart from this, the marine ecosystem, studied under marine sciences, is another area of interest for the biological anthropologists. Not yet, any human society been found inhabiting the underwater region but many a times, human fossils and other human related evidence have been unearthed from this part. So, the knowledge of this part of the earth in terms of the flora and fauna, physical and biological entities becomes important for the anthropologists to do justice to their fossil finds and to assess them well.

xii.) Ergonomics

It is the study of the physical fitness of man in various working conditions. To establish the man-machine relationship, study of biological anthropology is highly desirable. Various body dimensions are studied here with the help of anthropometry, which are then put into systematic perspectives. Finally, the machines are designed according to body dimensions/ to accommodate maximum types of body dimensions. Various population groups differ in body dimensions. Therefore, the machines are designed according to the body dimensions of the population concerned. The differences in body dimensions are resulted from a variety of biological and environmental factors.

Fig. 8 ergonomics is employed for designing numerous machines, including chairs

xiii.) Sports Physiology

In the world sports and games various athletes are categorized according to body size and physical development. The participating athletes are studied scientifically on two perspectives-

(1) Anthropological characteristics and

(2)  Genetic features. In the study of anthropological characteristics various measurements on the bodily parts are done, from which they are categorized and distributed into different body types also known as somatotypes/ body physiques. In the study of genetic features different factors like frequency of a heritable trait is calculated in case of a family history of any ailment, blood groups and related situations, etc are thoroughly studied. In the field of sports and games these anthropological studies are done in such a systematic manner that these have resulted in the development of new sub-discipline known as Sports Anthropology. Through all these studies and works, sports anthropologists are able to access the abilities and talents of the sports person, thus helping them by suggesting the required type of changes in the daily life related activities or those related with the sports and exercise postures and positions.

xiv.) Population Genetics and Statistics

Biological anthropology is closely related to the new sub-field known as population genetics. A population in a genetic perspective is defined as “a reproductive community of sexual and cross fertilizing individuals which share in a common gene pool”. The basic construct of genetics is the population. The community of potentially interbreeding individuals at a particular locality is termed as a Mendelian population. The largest Mendelian population is the species and the different species form distinct groups because they do not share the same gene pool. Human races, a much discussed and controversial topic of biological anthropology, are regarded as “Mendelian populations with potential and actual gene flow between their respective gene pool”. Populations are breeding isolates due to geographical barriers. The chances of survival of the fittest are explained through the concept of Darwinian fitness: the capacity of a variant type to displace the resident genotype in competition for the available resources. Fitness, according to Darwin, means the capacity to survive and reproduce. Thus, biological anthropology shares its views with population genetics.

   Apart from population genetics, biological anthropology is equally dependent upon Statistics with which it shares the techniques and ways of representing quantitative data and its analysis. Various statistical concepts such as that of central tendency, probability, data interpretation and hypothesis testing are of great significance in biological anthropology

xv). Public Health and Epidemiology

While working in the above mentioned fields, the main aim of biological anthropology is to spread awareness among the masses about different discoveries taking place which are in one way or the other, associated with human health and behavior. With this objective, the discipline is trying to provide as much information as possible to the common people about the various diseases and health challenges that could be faced by majority of people in the near future due to changes in lifestyle and rapid transition from active to sedentary life style. Such diseases include cardiovascular disease and other heart diseases, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, etc. In this regard, the goals of biological anthropology overlap with that of public health sector and epidemiological departments.

xvi). Chemistry

Fig. 9 Chemical knowledge helps in laboratory based work

Though not very much, but biological anthropology is dependent upon Chemistry for gaining knowledge about a variety of concepts. Numerous chemicals and reagents, prepared and used for various purposes in paleoanthropology, forensic anthropology, serology, physiological anthropology, etc. are actually a result of the understanding gained through Chemistry. The ideas of molarity, molality, normality, etc have made it easier to calculate and use the desired amount of chemical reagents. Moreover, the understanding about the handling and precautions to be taken while using different chemicals, equipments, and others is of great significance.

   Biological Anthropology is highly indebted to Chemistry for all such knowledge that has actually made its work really very easy, be it in any sub-branch of Anthropology.

xvii). Botany

Biological anthropology is associated with Botany in the sense that various medicines and certain reagents (anti-sera for ABO blood group testing) that are extracted from different exotic and rare species of plants, flowers, trees and other plant products actually comes under the subject matter of botany itself. Therefore, for a better understanding and careful usage of such plant products, biological anthropologists are highly dependent upon the botanical knowledge. Ethnobotany is one such sub-branch of biological anthropology which take care of such needs and demands of chemicals and medicines of floral relevance.

xviii). Geography

Fig. 10 Maps and other geographical tools help locating places

Geography is a discipline which helps to gain knowledge about different parts of the world in addition to develop an understanding about their location on the map/globe. The subject matter of geography includes physical geography and human geography; where physical geography mainly deals with the physical features such as landform, environment and climate of a place. Human geography, on the other hand, covers those aspects of any place or nation which is associated with the human factors of that area such as societies; their culture, economies, polity, etc. Due to the holistic nature of anthropology, biological anthropologists cannot confine themselves to a single area or population. Here, anthropology draws heavily from the geographical knowledge about numerous places and nations of the world as well as different societies and other related parameters.

xix). Neuroscience

   Neuroscience, branch of biology, does scientific study of the nervous system. These days it is being studied along with biological anthropology, thus given rise to a fresh sub discipline – Neuroanthropology. Neuroanthropology places the brain and nervous system at the centre of discussions about human nature, recognizing that much of what makes us distinctive inheres in the size, specialization, and dynamic openness of the human nervous system. By starting with neural physiology and its variability, neuroanthropology situates itself from the beginning in the interaction of nature and culture, the inextricable interweaving of developmental unfolding and evolutionary endowment. ‘Neuroanthropology’ is a broad term, intended to embrace all dimensions of human neural activity, including emotion, perception, cognitive, motor control, skill acquisition, and a range of other issues. Unlike previous ways of doing psychological or cognitive anthropology, it remains open and heterogeneous, recognizing that not all brain systems function in the same way, so culture will not take hold of them in identical fashion.

The field of neuroanthropology has four distinct aspects: (1) exploring the interaction of brain and culture and its implication for our understanding of mind, behavior, and self; (2) examining the role of the nervous system in the creation of social and ideological structures; (3) providing empirical and critical inquiry into the interplay of neuroscience and ideologies about the brain; and (4) providing novel syntheses and advances in social science theory and the humanities that might also prove useful to brain and behavioral sciences. The term ‘neuroanthropology’ as a big tent, in part to encourage those who have found places in more specialized subfields – cognitive science, cognitive anthropology, cultural psychology, evolutionary psychology – to see connections outside their expertise. The brain sciences revolution has short circuited old arguments that were stuck in unproductive cycles. Genetics and brain imaging provide new empirical evidence that goes to the heart of the relationship between biology and culture, demonstrating that we humans cannot be understood by simply focusing the attention on the most microscopic scale of phenomena. Similarly, humans cannot be fully understood by solely focusing on the most macro level of analysis. A big tent synergy offers a way to appreciate what we have in common and how we vary, both as scholars and as people.

Summary

The study of biological anthropology is specially characterized by a wide dimension. Man is not only a complex and highly evolved animal but his life and behavior- pattern are extremely complicated. Thus, the study of biological anthropology centering round biological developments of man and conditioned by cultural activities will not be perfectly made illustrative without going into studies of different sciences. On the other hand, physical anthropology shares the views of these scientific disciplines and most of the time close integration of ideas is found herein. Now-a-days biological anthropology has been contributing a lot to the spheres of studies of different sciences and is simultaneously being enriched with the varied findings of these scientific disciplines.

References

• Demetrius, L., Ziehec, M. (2007). Darwinian fitness. Theoretical Population Biology.72; 323–345.
• Jurmain, R., Kilgore, L. and Trevatham, W. Physical Anthropology: The Essentials. 9th ed. 12-18.
• Roberts C.A., Alves Cardoso F., Spencer R., Bernofsky K, Henderson C, Jakob T, Plomp K, Ponce P and Sharman J. Palaeopathology: studying the origin, evolution and frequency of disease in human remains from archaeological sites. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems.
• Shock, N.W. 1951. Gerontology (Later Maturity). Annual Review of Psychology. 2: 353.

Web links

• file:///C:/Users/acm/Downloads/SampleChapter01%20(1).pdf
• http://anthro.ucsc.edu/undergraduate/sub-fields/physical-anthro.html
• http://anthropologicalstudy.blogspot.in/2011/03/relation-of-physical-anthropology-to.html
• http://anthropologyandgerontology.com/
• http://evolvingsapiens.blogspot.in/
• http://geography.howstuffworks.com/terms-and-associations/geography2.htm ges/Psychological.htm
• http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/theory_pages/Psychological.htm
• https://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/21stcenturyanthro/n40.xml

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