29 Applied Physical Anthropology

Imkongtenla Pongen

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Introduction

1. Applied Anthropology vs Academic anthropology

2. Types of applied anthropology

3. Domains of Applied Physical Anthropology

3.1Kianthropometry or Anthropology of Sports

3.2 Forensic Anthropology

3.3 Ergonomics

3.4 Neuroanthropology

3.5 Fashion Anthropology

3.6 Medical science

3.7 Public Health and Epidemiology

3.8 Medico-legalAspects

3.9 Eugenics

3.10 Genetic counseling

3.11 Genetic screening and treatment

3.12 History and sociology

4. Future prospects

 Summary Learning

 

Objectives

  1. Differences between applied and academic anthropology
  2. Know the different types of applied anthropology
  3.  Find out the various domains of applied physical anthropology with illustrative examples.

 

Introduction

Applied anthropology lends its concepts from traditional anthropology and addresses a facets of contemporary socio-economic, political and health issues facing different populations and organizations. The first use of the term applied anthropology occurred in a description of the Oxford program (Fortes 1953;van Willigen 2002).Applied work undertaken by the Ethnological Society of London and later the Anthropological Society of London founded in 1843 and 1863 respectively provided the field with much of its disciplinary infrastructure(Reining 1962).

 

The basic tenet of all sciences is to apply the result of their investigations in the welfare of human beings .As such, physical anthropologists also utilize their concept of primate evolution, biological aspect of human beings and human variation to specific situations in an applied setting. Applied physical anthropology thereby indicates the applied concept in the field of physical anthropology. It mainly focuses on the process of evolutionary change .The measurements, observations and techniques used by physical anthropologist are employed in the field of medicine, dentistry, public health and criminal investigations. An applied physical anthropologist should have a solid background in data collection and assessment for successfully carrying out the applied work. Thus Jaiswal (2011) has rightly remarked that applied anthropology fulfills a useful and profitable function in the society of mankind. Here, an attempt has been made to give a general view of the domains where physical anthropology has practical implications.

 

1. Applied Anthropology vs Academic anthropology

   The application of knowledge, theory, methods and data of anthropology in non-academic settings, such as governmental and non-governmental organizations, medical hospitals and corporate sector to address societal issues is known as applied anthropology. It is sometimes referred to as ‘Practicing Anthropology’. Applied anthropologists put anthropological knowledge into real-world practice.

 

   Practical anthropological applications started in the 1960s as its holistic and ethnographic perspective fit the social interest of that period. It spread in the 1970s as anthropologists were absorbed in international/national organizations, corporate sector and governmental institutes.

 

   Academic anthropology refers to teaching and adding to the knowledge base of anthropology. It focuses on teaching, training, research and writing. It began in the early 20th century by Malinowski, Boas and the like and the World War II foster its growth.

 

  However, an academic anthropologist can carry out applied anthropological work at the same time. Similarly, an applied anthropologist can speak and write about their experiences thereby adding information to the academia as well.

 

2. Types of Applied Anthropology

Applied Anthropology comes from all the four subfields of anthropology:

 

(i)Applied Physical Anthropology: Applied physical anthropologists work in genetic counseling, substance abuse, epidemiology, aging, mental illness, forensics, public health and nutrition.

 

(ii)Applied archaeological anthropology: Applied archaeologists manage cultural resources. They study, locate and preserve historic and prehistoric sites threatened due to developmental works.

 

  (iii)Applied social anthropology: This anthropologists work with businessman, economic development experts, social workers, advertising professionals, factory workers, medical professionals, school personnel, etc.

 

(iv)Applied Linguistic anthropology: This anthropologists work in district schools with various languages.

 

3. Domains of Applied Physical Anthropology

The measurement technique used by applied physical anthropologists is termed as ‘Anthropometry’. Hansen and Cornog, 1958 have described anthropometry as “the theory and practice of taking bodily dimensions by suitable instruments, and the orderly treatment of the resulting data”. The technique is widely used in human engineering. It is divided into four areas,viz.,somatometry (measurement of both living and dead body), osteometry (measurement of the skeleton/bones), craniometry (measurement of the skull) and cephalometry (measurement of the head and face). These measurements gives information about the proportion among different limbs, population variation due to age(Physical growth) , physique and its relation to sports (kinanthropometry),nutritional status, etc. They are employed in measuring military personnel for designing railroads, airplane seats and space suits. It is divided into dynamic and static measurements. Static measurements are used to provide space and clearance around the body of fit people. In applied anthropometry, dynamic measurements are more important because the measurements are done when the body move while working and objects are designed based on this.

 

3.1 Kinanthropometry or Anthropology of sports

Physical anthropological methods are utilized in sports as relation between body build, physique etc., are seen with activities of sports. One’s physical capacity determined by heredity and health is called potential physical capacity whereas the capacity developed through physical exercise is termed as acquired capacity. Exercise can reduce or increase the quantity of fat. Strength, endurance, speed of contraction and elasticity of a muscle are directly associated with sport activities. Right kind of physical activities can help in the development of vitality, vigor, skill and stamina necessary for sports.

 

    Every individual has his peculiar capabilities determined both by heredity and environment, thereby posing a unique problem. Structure and function of different parts of the human body are interrelated.

 

   In order to remain physically fit, one needs to perform some kinds of exercise which is termed as the minimum level. Even for this level, the instructor should be careful in assigning the kind of sport to the individual .He should assign only after studying the individual’s mental and physical condition. This aspect is very vital when an individual is trained to make him/her an expert in a particular sport. At the same time, we should look at the physique, heredity and aptitude of the individual. If we think of a race competition, then it is expected that the brachycephalic (short legs, long trunk) are expected to win the race due to their stronger heart and larger lung when resistance is taken into account. Macroskelic (long legs and a short trunk) type has a chance of winning. Bar exercise is an event of gymnastics and it should be adjusted to the height of the head or chest to derive the benefits.

 

    Sport physiologists use many of the body measurement techniques developed by physical anthropologists. Athletes’ bodies are measured and the different body types are correlated with particular sports. Anthropology of sports study sport in a systematic manner from a cross-cultural perspective. Tribal people and their sports are studied which gives an understanding of how their way of playing games help in developing their physique and conduct in sports.

 

Case study

Since 1928, physical anthropology of the Olympic athletes has been interestingly studied. Kohlraush measured approximately 300 athletes at Amsterdam. 1948 United States Olympic Games was studied by Cureton. Their findings concluded that differences were observed in age, weight and height among the various events .Tanner found out that there was marked difference in the somatotypes of the athletes and the general population.

 

Case study

Kukushkin(1964) the Soviet Union State General Institute of Physical culture studied adult sportsmen and found out that each sport has its own peculiar influence upon the physical development and functional capability of an individual.Basketball players had largest chest expansion while weight-lifters and wrestlers had the largest chest circumference;swimmers had the largest lung capacity.

 

3.2 Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is one of the subfield of applied physical anthropology where the knowledge of physical anthropology is applied to law. It is considered as one because forensic anthropologists is often called upon to testify as an expert witness to present his/her findings which may prove or disprove the identity or cause of death of the victim (Scupin and Decorse, 2008).Skeletons are reconstructed from skeletal remnants by forensic anthropologists to determine the identity of an individual-be it, age, sex, height or any other physical characteristics of a human body. Besides this, the constructed bones reveal fractured bones, surgery or dental work, nutritional stress and socio-economic living conditions of the individual. This can aid the police in tracing out reported and unreported missing persons.

 

Personal identification is done by identifying gender, age, height, race, fingerprints, scars, tattoos, deformities, moles/warts and handwritings. Biometrics is widely used these days for secure identification and personal verification due to increasing level of security breaches. It is a very important facet for both national and international security. Many organizations also used biometrics for enhanced user convenience, security and maintain records. Dermatoglyphics, the study of various untapped fingerprint characteristics has also aided in personal identification.

 

Forensic taphonomy deals with the external factors that affect the bones. Circumstances of an individual’s death can also be ascertained by either checking out the bullet holes or stab wounds in the skeletal fragments which is indicative of the particular weapon used in killing the victim. The forensic anthropologist can also tell about the place/location where the individual was murdered as they can determine whether the body was disturbed or transported after the murder.

 

They apply their knowledge and techniques even in the arena of genocide, terrorism and war crimes by determining the population and the biological aspect of the deceased.

 

However, forensic anthropology can be viewed as a sister rather than a daughter discipline of physical anthropology (Dirkmaat et al,2008). It is because forensic anthropology utilizes the principles of both archaeology and physical anthropology. Recovery, preservation and documentation of the evidence employ the technique of archaeological anthropology while the laboratory analysis and reconstruction of identity and forensic taphonomy employ the techniques of physical anthropology.

 

3.3 Ergonomics

The study of man in relation to his working environment is termed as ergonomics. Physical anthropologists provide the anthropometric measurements to create a smooth interface with the product and the varied dimensions of the human body. Corner and Gordon, 1996 have rightly said that products from toothbrushes to luxury sedans are touching ergonomic design. The limb proportions and the size of the body vary in different populations .For this, age, gender, nature of work and place of operation should be taken into account for designing the item. Let us illustrate some examples here. Different kinds of furniture are used in different places. Desks and chairs are used in schools and colleges, kitchen furniture, office tables, file shelves, drawing room furniture bedroom furniture, bathroom fittings, etc. should be designed according to the convenience of the users as per their body size. If seats in road vehicles, airplanes, train etc are not properly designed then the passengers will not feel comfortable. Workers in industries will work more efficiently if they can use the surrounding and the equipment comfortably.

 

Case study: Seats on trains

Using anthropometric data of people, applied physical anthropologist Hooton conducted research in the seating alignment in trains to make more comfortable seats. He found out that certain bad sitting arrangements result in bad posture, skeletal, muscular and other disabilities whereas good sitting arrangements enhanced improved circulation, respiration and corrected posture. Through the analysis of variations in the anthropometric body measurements, train seats were redesigned. Based on this observation, seats for educational institutes, offices and vehicles were designed.

 

Case study: Armed forces

Anthropometric surveys on military personnel are conducted to get their body measurements which are used to meet various demands. Since 1951, the National Military Academy in Mexico has been doing effective work in this domain. Biometric investigations are widely used in the selection of cadets. The Air Forces also use the anthropometric data in solving spatial problems in aircraft and in redesigning flight clothing. Anthropometry is also used to design the cockpit as per body size, seats for the passenger’s aircraft, designing of tank and gun-sight, pressure suits and helmets, anti-gravitational suits, gasmasks, pistols and guns, etc. The quartermaster Corps emphasizes on finding out the relationship between body and clothing measurements so that the clothes may fit the military personnel with minimum or no alteration.

 

3.4 Neuroanthropology

In contemporary cognitive sciences, neuroanthropology studies how the interaction of culture and biology effects the development of human brain and behavior. The neurological perspective on the human brain suggests that the evolutionary framework of human culture is rooted in a pre-existing primate neural system. Neurological mechanisms with positive emotions are the basis for shamanism, yoga and meditation .The influence of cultural variation in neuroplasticity is in its infancy. The role of culture in neuroplasticity extends throughout human brain evolution. Therefore the role of metabolic stress is required to understand the relation of empathy and other social emotions to somatic states. Hence, investigation of traditional cultures on brain is done by studying the levels of physical activity and caloric intake through indirect methods which makes use of physical anthropology techniques.

 

Pattern of neurodynamics has been studied among ethnic groups in India and has been found that the thinking pattern remain almost same till the age of thirty one in both the genders and there is little differences in feelings in both the gender till middle age.

 

3.5 Fashion anthropology

A   new field of anthropology termed as ‘Fashion anthropology’ has emerged. Physical anthropologists used their anthropometric methods to give information about the different size and shape of the body to the cloth manufacturers for them to adjust the level required to fit the customers. Footwear used in varied occasions are also designed based on the measurement of the size and shape of the foot of different ethnic population. Depending upon body size, clothing for the armed forces is developed. Clothing, bag etc., are designed based on the principle that a person is capable of carrying weight to a certain level if the weight is distributed all over the parts of the body. This way the individual can lost less energy and work more judiciously.

 

3.6 Medical science

The methods and data of physical anthropology have been extensively used in the field of medicine, dentistry, gynecology, orthopedics, orthodontics, pediatrics, prosthetics, etc. The medical doctors require the knowledge of anthropometry for measuring the patients. A gynecologist should know the dimension of the pelvis of the expectant mother and the approximate circumstances of the head of the baby in the womb. Likewise, an orthopedic surgeon should have an idea about the measurement of the bones at the time of diagnosing the presence of a bone lesion. Different disease resistances of optimum temperature, humidity, etc., are understood by utilizing the results of study of the physical anthropologists.

 

3.7 Public health and epidemiology

Physical anthropologists study the distribution and determinants of diseases in various ethnic populations and its findings are used for intervention and to promote health in the studied population. The effect of lifestyle transition and role of epigenetics on health and disease of different ethnic populations are also explored thereby it aids in public health and epidemiology.

 

3.8 Medico-legal Aspects

Knowledge of human genetics, one of the main fields of physical anthropology is used in paternity diagnosis. Paternity diagnosis arises in situations where questions arise whether a particular man/woman is the father/mother of a child; or claim a long lost child; or a couple may suspect that their child has been interchanged with another baby in the hospital; or anyone can claim a child as theirs for inheriting property or the like. Genetic relationship exists between the parent and the child. Exclusion of parentage can be said with certainty but one can never prove parentage. Genetic evidence can say that person could be the parent of that particular child. The most widely used genetic traits for judging paternity dispute are the blood group systems-ABO,MN and Rh. Only one system may be sufficient but sometimes more than two systems are taken into account. DNA fingerprinting is also used for paternity diagnosis.

 

3.9 Eugenics

Eugenics is an effort to improve the quality of the human race. In today’s world it’s not only the fittest ones who survive but it has become possible even for the unfit ones to survive. Thus what should we do under such circumstances? Two measures could be applied. Reproduction among those whom society considers desirable should be encouraged which is known as positive or progressive eugenics .The other measure is to discourage reproduction among those who have certain genetic defects, mental and physical which is known as negative or preventive eugenics. It has been found that families of lower socio-economic groups have high average number of children which is detrimental to the genetic quality of human population. They should be encouraged to restrict their family size and accept birth control measures.

 

Case study In earlier times, many children with severe cleft palate and harelip did not survive but now with modern surgery ,they live a normal life, thus in recent times the frequency of these genes is rising. To reduce suck kind of increase in frequencies of undesirable genotypes, various negative measures have been suggested.

 

Genetically defective person has to be prevented from reproduction and if the probability of giving birth to a defective child by a couple is very high, then they should go for medically induced abortion of the fetus.

 

3.10 Genetic counseling

With advanced level of human genetics, people seek advice for many reasons. In cases where a person wants to know the chances of having children with inherited defect if he marries a girl who has a sibling with that defect or for a couple to have a second child if the first is mentally ill ,etc., genetic counselor is contacted. A counselor provides all the necessary genetic and medical information, social, economic and psychological factor associated with the case and leaves the choice to the persons who seek advice. A genetic counselor happens to be either a medical doctor or a well trained professional having specialized knowledge of human genetics. Accurate diagnosis of the disease should be done and karyotyping is sometimes required. When it is established that hereditary factors are involved in that particular trait then the hereditary background and the type of inheritance involved is determined through pedigree analysis. The counselor then gives advice on the basis of the findings in terms of probability and severity of the defect along with associated problems. Low risk and less severity is a different situation to high risk and high severity. The risk may be low but the probability may be high whereas the risk maybe high but the probability may be low. However while disclosing the information to the individual, care should be taken so that the person may not become psychologically upset.

 

3.11 Genetic screening and its treatment

Genetic screening helps the future generation to get rid of many undesirable inherited diseases. Screening may be done at the intrauterine diagnosis and of the newborns. Amniocentesisis the method by which many biochemical disorders and most chromosomal abnormalities can be detected at prenatal stage. If the diagnosis indicates certain defects in the fetus, then the parents are advised to think of considering abortion. A pregnant woman over the age of 35 years may have a higher risk of carrying a baby with Down’s syndrome.

 

Phenylketonuria is an inborn error of metabolism which is an autosomal recessive trait caused by mutation affecting the mechanism of metabolizing phenylalanine. It is characterized by mental retardation. If accurate diagnosis is done before the newborn needs medical attention then the baby can be treated and mental retardation could be prevented. This kind of diseases might be able to eliminate recessive gene diseases by identifying heterozygotes and avoiding the marriage among them. Detection of no affected carrier (eg,sickle cell anemia) can be done by simple methods where mass screening at population level is very important.

 

   Hereditary diseases are treated by many methods. The correction of genetic defects by DNA technology is known as genetic engineering or genetic manipulation. There are different techniques involved, viz., transformation, transduction and replacement. Transformation is concerned with the introduction of genetic information from the external sources. Free DNA is put into the cells and integrated into the DNA which receives the same, hence the DNA is transformed leading to the correction of the defective genes. In certain cases where foreign DNA is not accepted by the recipient DNA, RNA is isolated and DNA transcription with RNA dependent DNA polymerase is prepared. In humans, DNA technology has corrected many enzyme defects. Transduction is one where viruses mediate the DNA that is introduced to the host. Genetic information from the host DNA is incorporated into the virus DNA. Then the bacterial material is transferred to the new host and becomes active in the new cells. Functionally homologous viral genes replace defective genes. Presence of viruses or the association of viral infection with certain metabolic traits may be beneficial for humans.

 

3.12 History and sociology

The data of physical anthropology has given the correct interpretation of facts in the subjects like history and sociology. Physical phenomena in prehistory and ancient history where written documents are either lacking or are very insufficient to reach at a definite conclusion are explored through the findings of physical anthropologists. Due to the analytical study of the physical anthropologists today, the doctrine of racial superiority and inferiority in the history of different countries, prevalent to fulfill different political and economic motives, has been proved absurd. The physical anthropologists have studied the races of mankind in a careful way and are trying hard to eradicate this particular disease from human society.

 

The importance of physical anthropology is utilized by the new classical sociologists in their study and research.

 

Malinowski has remarked that social and cultural determinism always modifies the individual physiology.

 

4. Future prospects

Research -oriented and action-oriented work or academic anthropology and applied physical anthropology should be mediated in order to open more ways for gaining employment and bring the historically-divided arenas more closely to each other.

 

Summary

Use of anthropological theory and method in practical situations is termed as applied anthropology. Physical anthropology is also tremendously applied to offer practical solutions to problems of varied situations which is known as applied physical anthropology. Here, applied anthropology and physical anthropology play vital roles like working with human engineering data to design suitable environments and aid police in identification and investigation of disaster or murder victims.

 

Anthropometry is the application measurement used by applied physical anthropologists which is the standard technique of measuring body dimensions by calibrated instruments. Applied physical anthropologists have also integrated anthropometry into clothing design, product manufacturing and ergonomics. It has special role in kinanthropometry or anthropology of sports.

 

One of the subfield of applied physical anthropology is forensic anthropology where anthropological data is applied to law. Skeletal or bone fragments of individuals are reconstructed by physical anthropologists which can be used as evidence of living conditions ,dental work, medical and surgery implications, dietary stress, etc. that aid in identification of both murder or disaster victims and the criminals as well. Dermatoglyphics, the study of various untapped fingerprint characteristics has also aided in personal identification. Investigation of traditional cultures on brain is done by studying the levels of physical activity and caloric intake through indirect methods which makes use of physical anthropology techniques.

 

   The methods and data of physical anthropology have been extensively used in the field of medicine, dentistry, gynecology, orthopedics, orthodontics, pediatrics, prosthetics, genetic counseling, etc. Different disease resistances of optimum temperature, humidity, etc., are understood by utilizing the results of study of the physical anthropologists. The effect of lifestyle transition and role of epigenetics on health and disease of different ethnic populations are also explored thereby it aids in public health and epidemiology.

 

   Eugenics is an effort to improve the quality of the human race. Genetic screening helps the future generation to get rid of many undesirable inherited diseases.

 

   Hereditary diseases are treated by many methods. The correction of genetic defects by DNA technology is known as genetic engineering or genetic manipulation Physical anthropology has helped in solving immense medico-legal problems and paternity disputes. They examine their data in the light of modern genetics. Due tothe analytical study of the physical anthropologists today, the doctrine of racial superiority and inferiority in the history of different countries, prevalent to fulfill different political and economic motives, has been proved absurd. The physical anthropologists have studied the races of mankind in a careful way and are trying hard to eradicate this particular disease from human society. The studies concerning the human body in relation to the physical surroundings, Hooton’s study for seating accommodation in trains in order to improve the clothing size, may be regarded as remarkable contribution in this field .Research -oriented and action-oriented work or academic anthropology and applied physical anthropology should be mediated in order to open more ways for gaining employment and bring the historically –divided arenas closer .The scope of applied physical anthropology is varied , henceforth it serves a profitable function in the society of human beings.

 

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References