6 Types of power

Ronald Yesudhas

Content outline

Ø  Learning Objectives

Ø  Introduction

Ø  Basis and Types of Power

Ø  Open to Influence

Ø  Understanding Power in Community

Ø  Summary

Learning Objectives

The objectives of this module are as follows:-

• Ø  To help the learner understand the concept of power from the theoretical traditions in sociology
• Ø  To facilitate the learner to identify three sources of power, namely, positional, relational and personal.
• Ø  To discuss in detail about John French and Bertram Raven’s six bases of power

Ø  To orient the learner on openness to influence the role of power in community contexts

Ø  To detail the techniques used by community workers to map power relations in community to create change

1.  Introduction

One of the most important characteristics of a society is the way it organizes power. It is difficult to analyze the nature of power, for the simple reason that it cannot be perceived by senses. However, we feel the existence of this power at all levels. Technically speaking, power is understood as the ability to cause or prevent an action, make things happen; and the discretion to act or not act. In social, economic a political dimensions of the life of an individual, power is exercised by the individual or against/ upon the individual by external/ powerful forces.

Three are three theoretical traditions in the study of power, namely functionalist, conflict and pluralist. As far as the functional theorist are concerned, power is the capacity to influence people and events to obtain wealth and prestige. That is, having power is positively correlated with being rich. Wealthy people are also more likely to be politically active as way of ensuring their continued power and wealth. In contrast, poor people are less likely to be politically active, given their sense of powerlessness to influence the process. Conflict theorists hold that only a small percentage of the population, namely landowners, upper caste or capitalists hold the vast majority of power. They may not actually hold political office, but they nonetheless influence politics and governmental policies for their own benefit and to protect their interests. On the other hand, pluralist theorists hold that power is not in the hands of the elite or a few, but rather it is widely distributed among assorted competing and diverse groups. In other words, unlike elitists and Marxists, pluralists note little if any inequality in the distribution of power.

Among social scientists, social psychologists and communication scholars have extensively worked on the concept of power. Blau (1986) in his landmark study of exchange and power in social life, spelt out two major forces that govern the dynamics of complex social structures: the legitimization of organizing authority and the emergence of oppositions along different lines producing conflict and change. French and Raven (1959) defined social power as the influencing factor, which has the ability to bring about such a change using available resources.

Thus, it is clear that power plays a significant role in social influential situations. In the following session, we will be looking at the basis and types of power.

2. Basis and Types of Power

2.1 In a general sense, we can identify three sources of power, namely, positional, relational and expertise:

·         Positional power: This is based on the formal position of a person in an organization or community.

· Relationships: This is based on the social and cultural capital of a person. Informal power stems from the relationships and alliances you form with others. If you do a favor for someone, the law of reciprocity impacts your relationship. Coalitions and alliances increase your relational power.

·  Expertise: Some people generate power based on their knowledge, expertise, technical competencies and ability to articulate ideas or a vision that others will follow. Communication skills, charisma and trustworthiness help determine personal power.

Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven did a notable study on power in the 1959 and revised their position in 1965. Till today, this is the dominant way of explaining the forms or basis of power. The six bases identified includes coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, expert and informational power. The table below explains the basis and types of power.

2.1 Coercion

Coercive power uses the threat of force to gain advantage of the situation. Force may include physical, social, emotional, political, or economic means. The main idea behind this concept is that someone is forced to do something that he/she does not desire to do. The main goal of coercion is obedience to the master who gives the order.

2.1.1 Impersonal Coercion

Impersonal coercion refers to a power holder’s/ person’s belief that the influencing agent has the real power to physically threaten, impose a monetary fine or dismiss an employee

2.1.2 Personal Coercion

Personal coercion relates to a threat of rejection or the possibility of disapproval from a person whom is highly valued

2.2 Reward

Reward power is based on the right of some to offer or deny tangible, social, emotional, or spiritual rewards to others for doing what is wanted or expected of them. An examples of positive reward power is a praise a soldier receives for lengthy service at retirement party. An example of negative reward is a driver is fined for illegal parking. Pitfall of heavy reliance on reward power is that people become fixated and too much dependent on rewards. One needs to understand that eventually, as time passes, past rewards become insufficient to activate desired outcomes

2.2.1 Impersonal Reward

Impersonal reward relates to (promises of) promotions, monetary benefits and rewards from various social areas

2.2.2 Personal Reward

Personal reward relates to the reward of receiving approval from a desired person and building relationships

2.3 Legitimacy

Legitimate power comes from an elected or appointed position of authority. Rewarding and punishing subordinates is generally seen as a legitimate part of the formal or appointed leadership role. This type of formal power relies on position. Three bases of legitimate power are cultural values, acceptance of social structure, and designation. One who uses legitimate power may have a high need for power.

2.3.1 Formal Legitimacy

The formal legitimate power is based on the social norm and legal mandate which requires people to be obedient to those who hold superior positions in a formal social structure. An example of formal legitimate position include a police officer’s legitimacy to make arrests.

2.3.2 Legitimacy of Reciprocity

The legitimate power of reciprocity is based on the social norm of reciprocity which states how we feel obligated to do something in return for someone who does something beneficial for us. There is private reciprocation as well as public reciprocation. In private reciprocation, norm of reciprocity is usually internalized. All major ethical and religious traditions include reciprocity as a primary rule of moral behavior. In public reciprocation, initial favour and the following repayment always unfolds in a public way.

2.3.3 Equity

Equity is based on the social norm of compensatory damages. The social norm of equity makes people feel compelled to compensate someone who has suffered or worked hard.

2.3.4 Dependence

The legitimate power of dependence is based on the social norm of social responsibility which dwells on how people feel obligated to help someone who is in need of assistance.

People traditionally obey the person with this power solely based on their role, position or title rather than the person specifically as a leader. Therefore, this type of power can easily be lost and the leader does not have his position or title anymore.

2.4 Expert

Expert power is based on “what one knows”. When individuals perceive or assume that a person possesses superior abilities, they award power to that person. Thus, expertise can be demonstrated by reputation, credentials and actions. Sometimes, expertise can be pseudo/ not genuine.

2.4.1 Positive Expert

Positive expert power influences the target to act accordingly as instructed by the expert. It is based on the assumption that the expert has the correct knowledge.

2.4.2 Negative Expert

Negative expert power is a form of power which can result from a person acting in opposition to the experts instructions if the target feels that the expert has personal gain motives.

2.5 Referent

Referent power is rooted in the affiliations we make and/or the groups and organizations we belong to. Referent power refers to the ability of some individuals to attract people and build loyalty. Such power is based on the charisma of the power holder. For example a founder of an NGO or voluntary organization has the charisma to attract thousands of people for a protest. Such kind of power is called referent power. But one should be careful that abuse of such power is possible if the person uses it for personal advantage at the cost of the group’s position.

2.5.1 Positive Referent

Positive referent power utilizes the shared connection or belief between the influencing agent and target with the intention of positive change in the target.

2.5.2 Negative Referent

Negative referent power produces actions in opposition/ contravention to the intent of the influencing agent, this is the result from the agent’s creation of mental discomfort/ stress between the influencing agent and the target’s perception of that influence.

2.6 Informational

Informational power is the ability of an agent to bring about change through the resource of information. Informational influence results which is acceptance by the target audiences gladly. In order to establish Information Power, an agent of influence would likely provide a baseline of information to a target of influence to lay the groundwork in order to be effective with future actions and persistent follow-up exercises.

2.6.1 Direct Information

Information presented by the influencing agent directly to the target of change is called as direct information.

2.6.2 Indirect Information

Information presented by influencing agent indirectly to the target of change through indirect means such as hints or suggestions is called as direct information.

3. Open to Influence

Power often expresses itself as influence, i.e the ability to change, direct or affect others’ behavior. Interestingly, community leaders and formal managers who are open to ideas of peers and subordinates garner greater respect than those who resist others’ influence. An openness to influence demonstrates trust and respect, which become reciprocal and contagious. With greater openness comes access to information and insights about the environment. This helps to identify problems and rapidly adjust/ reorient towards difficult situations. However, one needs to be careful about being

4.  Understanding Power in Community

Power in a community context is the ability to affect the decision making process and the use of resources, both public and private, within a community. Examining the concept of power in community involves looking at the sources and structures that influence local communities and exploring the relationships that shape cooperative efforts. The community worker who has a basic understanding of social power and who can identify the power actors in a community can enhance the opportunity for success in community development initiatives.

4.1 Source of Power in Community

Power in the community can come from a variety of places. Community workers should analyse the power base(s) of a key leaders. Power bases could be connections, rewarding, personal traits, legitimate power, expertise, information, and coercing ability.

Connections refers to the ability to network and build useful relationships with other powerful individuals and organizations. Rewarding is the ability to give recognition, visibility, money, or other tangible items for the community priorities. Personal traits includes an individual’s charisma, creativity, charm, leadership abilities or some combination of these characteristics can foster the respect and loyalty of others. Legitimate power refers to the position (office, title) of the leader. Usually, the higher the office, the more powerful the person. The Talati or Village Officer, for example, holds a higher position and has more power than a school teacher in the Village. Expertise power is based on knowledge, skill, and talent, combined with respect for the skill. For example a well-trained social worker or a Non Formal Educator can bring valuable skills to a village/ slum development initiative. Information is the ability to channel or withhold information. The mass media has this type of power. A community person who has contacts or works in the media is a source of information power in the community. Coercive power is based on the attempt to influence others using a negative style, such as using intimidation or manipulation. Usually rural power elites use this power.

4.2 How do individuals get power in community?

4.2.1 Position in the Social Structure

Power structure in a community is key leaders (power actors) acting together to affect what gets done and how it gets done. However, the nature of the relationships among the individual power actors can vary from one community to another. In most communities in India, upper caste elders are the powerful members. However, there are variances. Some communities have a power structure centered on one person who is surrounded by associates. Other communities have a small, tightly knit group (power elite or Syndicate) that controls policy-making for the community. There is split community too, where people are divided on class or caste lines. The “power pool” involves a combination of all three. Essentially, there is a pool of 10 to 25 people who are the top community power actors. The “power pool” is dynamic. The same power actors may not be relevant to every issue. There are communication networks within the pool. A discussion with one or more power actors provides an indirect method for communicating a message to several other power actors. Members of the power pool even change over time. In addition, the power of one individual relative to another may change, so the assessment of power actors cannot be viewed as a one-time task.

4.2.2 Being in Authority

Authority is the power held by a person in an elected or appointed “office.” No matter who holds the office, the authority is the same. For example, presidents of the panchayat have the same authority irrespective of their gender, caste or class differences. However, social, political and economic dimensions will affect their personal influence.

4.2.3   Influence

Influence is the power that resides with an individual. Influence may be based on their skills in guiding and directing people, their specialized knowledge, their reputation, or their control of and/or access to money and resources (land, job, and access to infrastructure). Those with the most power in a community have that power primarily because of their influence, not just their positions of authority, so we must find ways to identify such power actors. Characteristics such as human relations skills, outside contacts, access to needed resources, length of residence in the community, occupation, education, control of jobs, wealth, credit, and mass media.

4.3 How to map “power” in community?

There are two kinds of power structures: formal and informal. The formal power structure is easily recognized and includes elected and government officials and leaders of caste based and religious organizations. The informal power structure is hard to identify and may hold a greater influence over a community’s development. A community worker should ask the following questions to find the informal power structure:

·         Who seems the most powerful in this situation and why?

• What are the influences that might change the power structure in the community?
• What type of power do you and others working with you bring to the situation? Four types of data will help community workers to identify the community’s formal and informal power structures. They are positional, reputational, decision making, and social participation.

Positional data includes list of key government and civic leaders. Reputational data includes list the most influential people in the community. Decision makers’ data is based on the history of community decision making to determine the power actors who actively participate in community actions. Sources of information include meeting minutes, press reports, and participant interviews.

Social participation data includes list of active participants, activists and organizations which participates in the community decision making.

4.3  A Step-by-Step Process of negotiating power for community development

a)      Identify the members of both the formal and the informal power structures

b)      Find the important relationships

c)       Determine the kind of power the key leaders exercise

d)      Establish trust and gain the confidence of key leaders

e)      Learn what motivates each member of the power structure

f)       Ask leaders for their counsel and advice

g)      Do not back key leaders and power actors into a corner.

5.  Summary

Ø  Power is understood as the ability to cause or prevent an action, make things happen. It is an influencing factor, which has the ability to bring about such a change using available resources. Three are three theoretical traditions in the study of power, namely functionalist, conflict and pluralist

• Ø In a general sense, we can identify three sources of power, namely, positional, relational and personal. Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven identify six bases of power, namely coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, expert and informational power.
• Ø An openness to influence demonstrates trust and respect, which become reciprocal and contagious.
• Ø Power in a community context is the ability to affect the decision making process and the use of resources, both public and private, within a community. Power bases could be connections, rewarding, personal traits, legitimate power, expertise, information, and coercing ability.
• Ø Individuals get power in community through their position in the social structure, authority, and influence. Community workers can map the power relations in community to create change

References

• Blau, P (1986). Exchange and power in social life. New Brunswik ( U.S.A.) Transaction Books
• French, J. and Raven, B. (1959). The Bases of Social Power. In D. Cartwright, (Ed.), Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, 150-167.
• Raven, B. (1965). Social Influence and Power. In I.D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), Current Studies in Social Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 371–382.
• SST (2004). Understanding Community Power Structures. People, Partnerships, and Communities. Washington D.C: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1045565.pdf