1 Approaches to Curriculum Development

Dr. Navnath Tupe

Content outline

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Objectives

2.0 Concept of curriculum development

3.0 Andragogical approach

3.1 Problem Solving Approach

3.2 Mental Incentive Approach

3.3 Learning Environment Approach

4.0 Commonalities in the Curriculum Approach for Adult learners

5.0 Summary

Objectives

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to

•  Explain the importance of learner characteristics in curriculum development
•  Reflect on the Andragogical approach for curriculum development of adult learners
•  Derive the commonalities from various approaches of curriculum development for adult learners
•  Apply the knowledge of the curriculum development approaches into the construction of curriculum for the Adult learners

 1.0: INTRODUCTION

Curriculum development deals with the arrangement of curricular material to facilitate implementation. In developing a curriculum, a number of factors are considered. These factors include the learners who are the curriculum recipients, the teachers who are the curriculum implementers, the society culture from where the learners come and where they will function after schooling. Talking about the curriculum approaches, curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating. Ivowi (1994) acclaimed that there are several curriculum approaches which initiates from four step approach given by Mc. Cutchen & Zeichiel, 1942 to seven step approach of Hilda Taba, 1962 or several other approaches given by various agencies or institutions, there are several commonalities among them which can be figured out. Therefore the present module has been developed, keep all the previous curriculum approaches in mind and highlighting the important factors and commonalities of all those approaches.

However for the easy understanding of this module for the learners, a background is framed out in context of the real life scenario.

The given block below is exhibiting a situation in context of real life problem. All the learners are requested to go through each line of the scenario very carefully. As understanding the scenario properly and associating yourself to the scene, will help you to solve the problem posed in it, with the help of the content presented in the module.

SCENARIO Aruna is a leader of Self Help group in a village and have completed her education from the city. She is very social and is always ready to help people every now and then. All other ladies in the self-help group were illiterate and always see her as an inspirational role model. One day around 10-15 ladies approached her and said, Aruna, alike you we also want to have basic education at least, so that we can also carry out our day to day activities without any hurdle. At first Aruna didn’t understand what to say them, but at the same time she genuinely wanted to help out those ladies. So she said, “ok, after work in the evening we can sit for one more hour, may be I can help out you all”. All ladies got happy and went back to their homes. But after they went, Aruna came into perplexed mode. A series of questions were bombarding in her mind. She was not knowing how to educate those ladies and from where to start. What she can teach them so that they can have basic knowledge. Age difference was also a problem for Aruna as many of them were elder to her, some of them were of Aruna’s age and a few were younger than her. This age difference was also leading to different intellectual abilities of them. So she was unable to decide how she can tackle the needs of all the ladies. Were they really motivated to educate themselves, if yes than what is the reason or real purpose behind it. What kind of environment can be, where she can educate them

Above scenario arose a number of questions in front of all of you, which includes;

a) How can be this special class of adult learners should be treated?

b) What can be the content of teaching to adult learners?

c) What are their intellectual needs and how can we identify those needs?

d) What kind of Learning environment should be given to them?

e) How can many more ladies or other adults, alike them can be motivated for learning?

Many more similar questions might be running across your mind. Learners are requested in order to get the answers to all the above questions or other questions alike them, read the given module thoroughly. Given below is the list of learning outcomes which the learners will acquire after the completion of this module.

The one is the process of individual development and the other is the process of socialization, which is commonly known as adjustment with the social environment. Various educationists had given various definitions of curriculum, but the basic element in all the given definitions was just one and it is that the curriculum includes all the learner’s experience in or outside school or various forms of activities that are grand expression of Human spirit, which help the learners to develop emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally. The curriculum however can broadly be divided into Explicit, Implicit, Null and Extra curriculum, depending on the basis of its scope. Explicit curriculum includes the subjects that whatever the subjects that will be taught has the identified ‘mission’ of the school, and the knowledge and the skills that the school expects successful students to acquire Explicit curriculum. However Implicit curriculum includes the lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes and expectations that characterize the culture. Topics or perspectives that are specifically excluded from the curriculum come under Null curriculum. Last but not the least, Extra curriculum includes school sponsored programs that are intended to supplement the academic aspect of the school experience.

It is very much important that no matter what kind of a curriculum any one is designing but there should exist a balanced integration of cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives and abilities; knowledge and experience; Objectives and content; learner’s activity and needs along with societal needs and activity. Everything of it should be related to the social environment of the students. Values also play a very crucial part in the formulation and implementation of educational ideologies. Basically two kinds of values are important in the curriculum making and they are ultimate values that determine the aims and purposes of education, whereas the other kind of values are the instrumental values that are related to the means of education. Both of these values only decides the type of curriculum appropriate for any kind of learner, be it child, youth or adult.

 3.0 : ANDRAGOGICAL APPROACH FOR ADULT LEARNERS

The present module is discussing about the curriculum approaches in Adult Education. Here as everything is centered around Adult learners, therefore this becomes the umbrella approach for the curriculum development. Andragogical approach involves the proper understanding of the concept of Andragogy. But before dealing sub approaches under Andragogical approach, it becomes important to understand the gist of Adult Education more technically.

Generally for the Adult learners it becomes difficult to understand their needs and desires, which leads to the development of the faulty curriculum. Therefore it become very important to understand the adult learner’s characteristic, their needs, their intellectual and motivational aspects, their learning styles in such a way that a curriculum which can really proves to be helpful to them is formed that is devoid of all the irrelevant content. As the relevant curriculum only can attracts the adult learners to be the part of the lifelong learning cycle.

In the early 1970’s, an educator named Malcolm Knowles proposed that adults learn differently than do children and used the term “andragogy” to describe his philosophy of “the art and science of teaching adults”. Andragogy includes four basic assumptions of Adult learners, which include their Self-concept, experiences, readiness to learn, orientation tolearning and motivation to learn. Andragogy which is truly learner centered, where the learners are independent, self-directed, intrinsically motivated, environment is more informal which is characterized by equality, mutual respect and cooperation. Planning is a collaborative and self-reflective assessment affair. Thus learning is facilitated learning and Teaching is characterized by inquiry projects, experimentation independent study.

According to (Mackeracher, 1999), the Adult learners learn best when others respect and acknowledge them and their past experiences and personal knowledge, skills, values, and motives. When they are treated in ways which are consistent with their existing description of who they are and what they are capable of doing. When their learning bears some relationship to past experience and can be connected to their existing meanings and personal model of reality. When they have some sense of where they are going in the learning process, how they will get there, and how they will know when they have succeeded. Andragogical approach involves following sub approaches, which are discussed under the given heads.

3.1. PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH OF ADULT LEARNERS

How and what teaching continuum should be emphasized in the curriculum depends on one of the major factor, which is Problem solving of Adult learners. In 1970, William Perry proposed a useful model for capturing the development or maturation of our thinking abilities that can leads to problem solving. As at any stage intellectual development always solves the problem of that particular stage. Thus those three general stages are as follows;

The detailed description of all these three stages are as follows;

(i) Stage 1: Dualism or Received Knowledge refers to a belief that knowledge is absolute and attainable, that there are right and wrong answers, that “the truth is out there.”

Learners believe that teachers will pass these truths along to them, and that their role as student is to learn all the “right” answers. Students at this stage prefer material that is black and white, and often become confused or frustrated when asked to deal with shades of gray.

(ii) Stage 2: Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge refers to an acceptance by learners that there are multiple “truths” available versus one right answer. While learners accept this, they do not fully comprehend the underlying argument of these “truths” and cannot judge their merits well if at all. The teacher is viewed as being in possession of these multiple truths and responsible for guiding students to them.

(iii) Stage 3: Relativism/Procedural Knowledge involves an acceptance on the part of the learner that knowledge is relative and situational. That is, each individual constructs his/her knowledge based on experience and reflection, facilitated by the teacher in greater or lesser degrees based on the needs/wants of the learner and the educational objectives. The learner’s role is to critically reflect on multiple perspectives and determine the most suitable answer in a particular situation.

Catering all these three stages, the curriculum should be formulated in such a way that it gives scope to the adult learners to match up the content of the curriculum with their level of intellectual development for problem solving. As a comfort match for dualistic thinkers would be a facilitating style presenting knowledge as absolute truth, probably through lecturing. A developmental match for multiplistic thinkers would be a facilitating style encouraging and supporting individualistic thinking, probably through discussions. Adults may need assistance in learning skills typifying the post-formal [relativistic] stage of cognitive development such as; finding and formulating problems; asking questions; recognizing instances in which transfer of knowledge or skills can occur; developing projective images of future possibilities and working toward them; dealing with uncertainties, ambiguities and doubts; thinking critically; reflecting on action; and learning to learn

3.2.MENTAL INCENTIVE APPROACH

Other than interaction between content and learner’s mental incentive, interaction between mental incentives and societal environment, both ways should be considered while developing curriculum for adult learners.Much effort has been spent in trying to identify which of the countless and complex aspirations, drives and incentives of mankind are most significantly related to participation in adult education. On the surface, the problem does not seem difficult. Those who conduct programs often believe that they have identified important personal or social needs that require only clear and urgent expression to become incentives for action. The belief that the clarification of goals give rise to action runs deep in adult education. Stacy (1935) builds the case that adult education should be centered around the seven great arts which includes, perfecting philosophies, advancing cooperation, using science, increasing income, improving use of income, improving use of time and advancing beauty. It is important to start with the people, ‘where they are’. For it an early attempt was made by Gray and Munroe (1929), who enquired directly about the reading interests of adults. For curriculum construction it is important to examine analytically all the aspects of motivation for learning. As the adult’s life is juggling in various aspects of family, friends, work and need for personal quality time it become very difficult for an adult to make room for learning. Therefore taking all aspects into consideration it is required to create a flexible curriculum programme which can accommodate busy schedule and accepting the fact that their responsibilities can create hindrance in the learning process. Most potent motivators are intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Therefore curriculum for adult learners should be so diverse, able to present a role model infront, at the same time, fun filled, also gives the opportunity to be creative and Tech savvy along with the value addition of being positive, respectful to others’ opinion and being empathetic.

(ii) Interpersonal Environment: Other than Physical environment, Jmaes (1985) reported that the trainer’s behavior and attitude are more important contributor to the total environment.

(iii) Organizational Environment: The Organizational Environment includes the organizational structure of lecture to be delivered to Adult learners but also Organizational structure of the Institution. Jacob and Joyce (1994) stress the need for collaboration and cooperative structure is successful learning environment. Deming (1989) urges to break down all sort of barriers which can be effective in improving rapport. Commonality to all these is the desire to learn from everyone. Active participation by all allows an individual’s knowledge to contribute to the progress of others.

 4: COMMONALITIES IN CURRICULUM APPROACHES FOR ADULT

Curriculum is a rationality for viewing, analyzing and interpreting the curriculum and Instructional programme of an educational institution. According to National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA, 2009) Curriculum Approach is the way by which curriculum can be developed considering the central point of making personal, social and economic dimensions and opportunities was real. Curriculum Approach should focus on developing curriculum in such a way that enable Adult learners to become increasingly effective participants in multiple literacy practices.

There are two basic models on which this present module has focused and bring out the commonalities which every curriculum approach should adopt. The reason for selecting these two model only is that one reflects the initial basic four step model given by an Educationist, while other is reflecting the model adopted by National Adult Literacy Agency. Both of these approaches have been shown figuratively;

The Ralph Tyler’s Approach, which is the general and the basic approach of curriculum development, the four point which was focused on are basically the Educational Purposes which any organization or institution seeks to attain. For attaining these purposes there are various Educational Experiences which must be provided to the learners. All these experiences should be effectively Organized in order to Evaluate whether the aforesaid purposes has been attained or not.Therefore for any curriculum construction, all the opportunities which can majorly cater the educational purposes along with their experiences should be given to the learners. It should be kept in mind that learning experiences are not the same as the course content, it basically refers to the interaction between the learner and the external environment. Therefore while making any curriculum this basic approach of four step should always be followed.

Comparing to this approach, National Adult Literacy Approach which is specifically meant for Adult Learning, Learner has been placed at the center of the figure (2. NALA’s Approach) as Learners and their context in which they live and learn are at the heart of curriculum development for Adult learners. There are two rings, inner and outer ring. Outer ring has four key themes which indicate creative curriculum development, those key themes are as follows;

(i) Literacy as Social Practice: which means that literacy is what people do, not what they learn

(ii) Critical Awareness: Being aware that literacy and curriculum are shaped by where and how learning takes place

(iii) Change: effective curriculum development promotes change to help learners in meeting goals.

(iv) Learning: learning is participative and collaborative

Outer ring influences the aspects of Inner ring where th curriculum development process is learner centered and it starts with Context of learning, which is similar to (Tyler’s first point, i.e Educational Purpose). This approach goes forward with Planning, learning and teaching and the last part is feedback into context and planning, i.e. Review and Evaluation. All of these aspects of outer and inner ring keep on interacting with each other.

With both the Tyler’s basic approach of curriculum development as well as the advanced approach given by National Adult Literacy Agency for Adult Learners, the present module has given the certain commonalities which should be kept in mind during curriculum construction for Adult learners. This is discussed in subsection ahead.

 5: SUMMARY

There are many approaches to curriculum development for Adult learners. No matter which approach the curriculum developer may select but there must be a clear philosophy and set overarching goals that guide the entire curriculum and the decisions that effects each aspect of the curriculum. A basic framework must be outlined for what to do, how to do, when to do and how to know if it has been achieved. There can be no perfect approach to be effective, but in case of curriculum development for adult learners, leaving all the other stakeholders aside, only adult learners themselves has to be in the major focus. Given below are the key points which has been collected from the commonalities of the curriculum approaches, which should always be kept in mind while developing curriculum for adult learners.

From both the curriculum approaches, the following common points which can be dig out and are specifically rolling around only learner are as follows;

well as the curriculum development opportunities, challenges and resources that exists in the relevantcontext. These purposes of Adult learner can be present at broader societal, political, cultural and economical level. At the same time those purposes are linked up at the narrow level to immediate learning setting which may involve family, work community, citizenship.

(iii) Learner’s Experiences: Learner’s experience refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react.Curriculum development should be done in such a way that the teacher or the facilitator can provide an educational experience through setting up an environment and structuring the situation so as to stimulate the desired type of reaction. Learning experience will vary with the kind of objectives aimed at

(iv) Andragogy Involved: The role of the teacher for Adult learners is more of Teaching is concerned with planning, facilitating and reviewing learning in ways that respect, support and challenge Adult learners. Andragogy includes four basic assumptions of Adult learners, which include their Self-concept, experiences, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn. Instruction given by familiar should be taken into account the wide range of different background of learners and should be task oriented instead of promoting memorization. As the Adult learners are self-directed, therefore curriculum development should be formed in such a way that it gives opportunity to them to discover things and knowledge for themselves without depending on others.

(v) Evaluation: For Adult learners, learning builds on and grows through experiences. Therefore Evaluation is an integral to the process. However Reviewing is also as important as Evaluation, but the only difference between them is that the Reviewing is part of every session and Evaluation occurs at certain points. In Adult learning, learners are also encouraged to develop the skill of reflection-in-action. While Curriculum development, all these points must be focused.